The history of the Incense Trade Route refers to the historical and chronological development and evolution of the network of overland and maritime corridors used for transporting incense and associated luxury goods from South Arabia and neighboring regions to the greater Mediterranean, Mesopotamian, northeast African, and South Asian spheres. It covers shifts in trade volumes, political control, technological innovations, and market demands from the early 2nd millennium BCE through the 2nd century CE.
The incense trade most likely began as localized exchange networks in southern Arabia and the Horn of Africa but expanded into a vast transregional commercial system due to the strategic value of incense — particularly frankincense and myrrh — for religious, medicinal, and embalming purposes. The trade network solidified with the rise of urban polities in South Arabia and became integrated with Egyptian, Mesopotamian, Persian, Greek, and Roman economic spheres. Over time, trade routes adapted to political transformations, climatic conditions, and technological advances in transport.
circa 300 BCE- 200 CE
Pre–300 BCE
Egyptian records dating back to the 15th century BCE mention expeditions to Punt (possibly located in modern Eritrea/Djibouti or southern Arabia) to acquire incense, myrrh, ebony, ivory, and gold. The reign of Hatshepsut (circa 1479–1458 BCE) documents a naval expedition to Punt with detailed inscriptions at Deir el-Bahari showing the return with incense trees (Boswellia sacra), not just resin. South Arabian polities, notably Saba and Hadhramaut, developed incense cultivation and early caravan systems by the 10th century BCE. These kingdoms controlled production zones and began exporting incense northward through Najrān and Dedan. By the 8th–6th centuries BCE, Assyrian and Babylonian records indicate the import of aromatics from Arabia. Trade intensified under the Achaemenid Persian Empire, which indirectly controlled segments of the eastern Arabian trade through vassal territories.
The Egyptians had traded in the Red Sea, importing spices, gold, and exotic wood from the Land of Punt and from Arabia. Indian goods were brought in Arabian and Indian vessels to Aden. The "ships of Tarshish" mentioned in various traditions have been identified by some historians as a Tyrian fleet equipped at Ezion-Geber that made several trading voyages to the east bringing back gold, silver, ivory, and precious stones, which were transshipped at the port of Ophir.
One historian noted that South Arabia and the Horn of Africa were major suppliers of incense. Early Egyptian ritual texts show incense being brought to the upper Nile by land traders, but the most spectacular evidence is the frescoes dated to around 1500 BCE at the temple in ancient Thebes depicting Queen Hatshepsut's fleet returning from Punt, with one ship showing thirty-one incense trees in tubs.
The Periplus Maris Erythraei and other Greek texts mention coastal sites in Somalia, Southern Arabia, and India involved in the trade of frankincense, myrrh, cassia, bdellium, and various gum resins. Among the key trading points was Gerrha on the Persian Gulf, said to have been founded by Babylonian exiles and playing a crucial role in controlling incense trade routes across Arabia and to Babylon in the 1st century BCE.
Yemen’s wealth from frankincense and myrrh attracted settlers from the larger Fertile Crescent. Recent archaeological surveys confirm ancient trade corridors through Mahra in eastern Yemen. Assyrian records show Tiglath-Pileser III reaching Gaza, aiming to control the incense trade. Gaza’s ruler later acted as a vassal. I.E.S. Edwards linked the Syro-Ephraimite War to competition for controlling the northern terminus of the incense route. Inscriptions mentioning the mu-u-na-a-a possibly refer to the Minaeans of South Arabia, known for their incense trade.
Goods from Dhofar were shipped from Khor Rori (Samharam Settlement) and carried overland to Shabwa and the South Arabian kingdoms of Qataban, Saba, and Ma'in, eventually reaching Petra and Gaza. Sumerian texts show medicinal use of Dhofari resins, and interaction with the Magan and Dilmun cultures of the Persian Gulf is evident. Caravans faced high tolls from well owners and toll collectors along the route.
Third Century BCE
By the 3rd century BCE, the Nabataean kingdom began asserting control over the northern overland segment of the incense trade. Petra emerged as a crucial transshipment and storage center, facilitating movement to Gaza and other Levantine ports. Concurrently, Qataban, Hadhramaut, and Saba developed port facilities like Qanī and Sumhuram to streamline maritime shipping via the Red Sea. This period also saw the formalization of caravan infrastructure: wells, cisterns, and taxation posts. Greek sources, including Theophrastus, comment on the Arabian monopoly over incense and the secrecy surrounding its cultivation and collection.
Second Century BCE
The Nabataeans consolidated dominance over the northern routes, expanding trade beyond incense to include spices, textiles, and luxury goods. Dedan and Hegra (Mada’in Salih) became integrated into this route, serving as stopovers and customs stations. Incense volumes surged due to growing Hellenistic demand, especially in temples and funeral practices. In southern Arabia, the Himyarites began to challenge the older kingdoms. The rise of Gerrha in eastern Arabia linked the incense network to the Persian Gulf and Mesopotamia. Seleucid and Parthian involvement began influencing eastern segments of the network, and Babylon remained a major consumption hub.
First Century BCE
During this period Roman interest in the Arabian trade intensified. After annexing Egypt in 30 BCE, the Romans sought direct access to incense sources and attempted exploratory missions into Arabia Felix (notably the failed expedition under Aelius Gallus in 26–25 BCE). Despite its failure, the campaign revealed the wealth and importance of Arabian polities. Nabataean intermediaries continued to profit as Petra flourished under client-king status. Maritime routes gained traction due to improved navigational understanding of the monsoon winds, allowing more frequent voyages between southern Arabia and the Red Sea ports. The Periplus Maris Erythraei later provides detailed descriptions of these ports and their connections to inland incense networks.
The Nabataeans built Petra at the junction of the incense route from Arabia to Damascus and the overland route to Gaza. Antigonus Cyclops attempted to wrest control from them but failed. With Rome replacing Greece, the South Arabs resorted to piracy in protest against Roman maritime dominance. Rome retaliated by destroying Aden and favoring the western Abyssinian coast. The discovery of direct sea routes to India via the monsoon winds (attributed to Hippalus) weakened the Arab monopoly, although Indian ships continued sailing to Egypt independently.
A historian records that trade with Arabia and India became increasingly important to the Greeks, who began direct commerce with India during the reign of Ptolemy Euergetes II. Eudoxos of Cyzicus made two voyages and attempted an alternative route around Africa. His ventures reflect the weakening of Arabian intermediaries, particularly after the decline of the Sabaean kingdom and the rise of Himyar. Imports of cinnamon, pepper, and other spices into Egypt increased.
Theodore Bent, in 1895 CE, identified Moscha Limen (in Dhofar) as a collection and export point for frankincense. From there, it was shipped to Qana, overland to Shabwa, and on to Najran, Mecca, Medina, Petra, and Gaza. Trade links to Babylon and Palmyra via the Gulf are also documented. Roman trade with India increased significantly, with Strabo recording that 120 vessels annually sailed from Myos Hormos to India — a sharp rise from the handful during the Ptolemaic period.
First Century CE
Roman-Egyptian maritime control over the Red Sea corridor reached its peak. Ports like Berenice and Myos Hormos became key entry points for incense and eastern luxuries. The incense trade reached its height during the reigns of Augustus and Trajan. South Arabian cities like Qanī functioned as commercial hubs, hosting merchants from India and the Mediterranean. Nabataea remained critical but began facing pressures from Roman annexation and shifting trade preferences. The Aksumite kingdom in northeast Africa started rising as a regional power, controlling the African flank of the incense maritime route and exporting ivory and gold alongside aromatics.
Second Century CE
Rome annexed Nabataea in 106 CE, incorporating Petra into the province of Arabia Petraea. This shifted control of the overland routes directly into imperial hands. The incense trade, however, started to decline in volume as synthetic alternatives and changing religious practices reduced demand in Roman markets. South Arabian polities experienced internal conflict, and the Himyarite kingdom gradually absorbed rivals like Hadhramaut and Saba. Nonetheless, maritime trade persisted — now more integrated with Indian Ocean commerce — and Aksumite influence over Adulis provided an alternate pathway for incense into the Nile corridor. Despite these developments, by the late 2nd century CE, the incense trade had passed its peak.
Decline
The third century saw a marked decline in incense trade due to political and economic instability. With the weakening of Palmyra, alternative routes like Wadi Sirhan and Aila gained prominence. These received goods that had previously gone through Egyptian ports. By the end of the 6th century, Isidore of Seville still listed incense items such as myrrh, pepper, and cassia among imports into Visigothic Spain.
After the Persian–Roman wars, Sassanid ruler Khosrow I took over many Byzantine territories. Soon after, in 639–640 CE, the Rashidun army under 'Amr ibn al-'As entered Egypt, capturing strategic trade ports like Alexandria. This marked the definitive end of Greco-Roman commercial dominance in the region. Yemen re-entered global commerce centuries later through its coffee exports via the Red Sea port of al-Mocha. The Ottoman conquest of Constantinople in the 15th century CE ushered in Turkish control over the remaining viable routes to Asia.
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