Islamic Archaeology

The Islamic archaeology is concerned with the investigation of the material culture and historical record of Muslim peoples and societies. As an area of academic inquiry and as a practical part of heritage management, Islamic archaeology is growing as the role of Islam in the world increases both as a political force and in terms of its financial resources.

Overview

Because the Islamic Archaeology as a field of study is relatively young, there are a number of conceptual difficulties with the term “Islamic archaeology” which will be discussed further, but for the present it is used in broad inclusive fashion to encompass any archaeology where Islam is a significant factor in the history or heritage of the region or theme under consideration.

The emergence of the Islamic Civilization, which is no clearer than the emergence of the Sumerians or the Old Kingdom of Egypt, demands the attention of archaeological research. And the Islamic Archaeology presents a prime opportunity to address historical questions from complementary textual and archaeological evidence.

Brief History of Islamic Archaeology

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Emergence and Definition
Islamic archaeology emerged as an independent field about 100 years ago, initially focused on artifact recovery for funding. Born from the fields of Islamic art and architectural history, the archaeological study of the Islamic societies is a relatively young discipline. Over time, it evolved into a more rigorous examination of material remains, influenced by the historical significance of art and Orientalist studies. Early studies lacked critical interest due to Hegel's portrayal of art history, which relegated Islamic contributions to a lesser status. This perception began to change in the mid-nineteenth century with a more secular understanding of Islamic civilization's historical role. With its roots in the colonial periods of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, its rapid development since the 1980s warrants a reevaluation of where the field stands today.

Marcus Milwright defines the field of Islamic archaeology as a specialism within the discipline of archaeology. The term Islamic archaeology may be broadly defined as the examination of the physical remains of human activity and of the wider environment in regions of the world where the ruling elite professed the faith of Islam ^[UR2].

Historical Context
The historical context of Islamic archaeology was shaped by the political motives of colonial powers. For instance, the excavation of Madinat al-Zahra in Spain / al-Andalus was linked to Spain's political ambitions in Morocco. The German involvement in the Ottoman Empire prior to World War I also played a significant role, as German archaeologists conducted numerous excavations in Palestine and Mesopotamia, supported by the state.

There was a significant methodological shift in Islamic archaeology from mere artifact recovery to a comprehensive examination of Islamic art and architecture. This change was driven by an increased interest in the historical role of Islamic civilization, leading to a more interdisciplinary approach that linked archaeology with history and anthropology.

Methodological Evolution
There was a significant methodological shift in Islamic archaeology from mere artifact recovery to a comprehensive examination of Islamic art and architecture. This change was driven by an increased interest in the historical role of Islamic civilization, leading to a more interdisciplinary approach that linked archaeology with history and anthropology.

Political and Colonial Influences
Political and colonial influences were deeply intertwined with the development of Islamic archaeology. The discipline was often used to bolster national identities, particularly during the colonial expansions of European powers. The excavation practices were influenced by the political context, with significant archaeological efforts aimed at asserting control over regions like North Africa.

Excavation Processes and Practices
Excavation practices in the early days of Islamic archaeology often overlooked Islamic levels at pre-Islamic sites. However, as nationalist sentiments grew, there was a push for the establishment of antiquities policies and museums, which aimed to protect and promote the archaeological heritage of Islamic regions. Key scholars such as Max van Berchem and Friedrich Sarre made significant contributions the field of Islamic archaeology. Their work, along with advancements from Russian scholars, opened new areas for exploration and excavation, enhancing the understanding of Islamic history and culture.

Changes in Sponsorship and Regulation
Post-World War I, there were notable changes in the sponsorship and regulation of archaeological expeditions. The establishment of national departments of antiquities and the shift from museum sponsorship to national schools and institutes marked a new era in the conduct of archaeological research in Islamic lands.

Modern Developments
Modern developments in Islamic archaeology have seen an increase in inquiry, particularly in Iran and the Middle East, following World War II. The geographical scope of the field has expanded to include sub-Saharan Africa and East Africa, reflecting a broader understanding of Islamic influence and trade networks.

Challenges and Critiques
Islamic archaeology has faced various challenges and critiques, including a lack of scientific methods and poorly trained archaeologists. There have been concerns regarding publication records and the use of archaeology to construct national identities, prompting calls for more rigorous standards in the field.

Interdisciplinary Approaches
The emergence of interdisciplinary approaches has been a significant development in Islamic archaeology, linking it with history and anthropology. This shift has allowed for a more nuanced understanding of local communities and economies, moving beyond the constraints of political history.

Geographical Regions

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It will be clear that just as the Islamic world covers a large area and a significant proportion of the world’s land surface, so the archaeology of Islam will incorporate considerable diversity in terms of geo-locations, ethnicities, beliefs, environments, languages, histories, politics, and economics. At present it is not very clear outside of the very obvious geographical areas, how the extant and application of the subject Islamic Archaeology shuld be defined, which will be one of the major focuses of this article.

Egypt

Egypt was one of the earliest regions to be influenced by the Islamic civilization after the Arab conquest in the mid seventh century CE. The study of Islamic archaeology in Egypt allows scholars to explore the transition from Byzantine and Coptic periods to the Islamic era, understanding the continuity and change in material culture, architecture, and societal structures. Read more

Iraq

Iraq has played a central role as the cradle of various civilizations, including the earliest Islamic civilizations, particularly in cities like Baghdad, Samarra, and Najaf, and has witnessed the rise and fall of empires, making it a treasure trove for archaeological exploration. The archaeological sites in these areas offer insights into the early years of the Islamic Caliphate, including the Umayyad and Abbasid periods. Read more

Jordan

Jordan holds significant importance in the context of Islamic archaeology due to its historical role in the development of Islamic civilization. It is known for its Umayyad Desert Castles, a series of early Islamic structures built during the Umayyad Caliphate (7th-8th centuries). These castles, such as Qasr Amra and Qasr Kharana, provide insights into Umayyad architecture, art, and the economic and administrative functions of these structures. Read more

Syria

Syria holds immense significance in the context of Islamic archaeology due to its rich history and its role as a cultural crossroads. The country is home to numerous archaeological sites that span various periods, including the Islamic era. The Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, medieval castles from the Crusader and Muslim periods and Aleppo Citadel are few of the notable archaeological sites in Syria. Read more

Saudi Arabia

More recently, Saudi Arabia has been increasingly recognized for its significant role in the field of archaeology in general and Islamic archaeology in specific, for which the country has undertaken various initiatives to explore and preserve its cultural heritage. Recent archaeological efforts have been directed towards the restoration and preservation of a large number of historical and archaeological structures and sites. Read more

Israel/Palestine

The region of Israel and Palestine is of immense significance in the context of Islamic archaeology due to its rich history, diverse cultures, and the presence of major historical and religious sites. The study of Islamic archaeology in Israel and Palestine is complex and often intersects with broader historical and cultural narratives. The geopolitical situation adds unique challenges but also underscores the importance of cultural heritage in fostering understanding and dialogue. Read more

Featured Article Amulet of Kareem

The amulet was dated by Dr. Nitzan Amitai-Preiss of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem based on its calligraphy, which is typical of the early third caliphate period (circa 750–1258 CE); the dating of the archaeological structure in which it was found; and pottery fragments found at the site, including a complete lamp, which are typical of the Abbasid period.

Beautifully inscribed in Arabic, the rare thumbnail-sized talisman has been dated to the ninth or tenth century CE, the time of the Abbasid Caliphate. The devotional writing appears on two lines and has been translated as reading: “Kareem trusts in Allah – Lord of the Worlds is Allah.”

The Kareem Amulet | Explore Seals/Bullae Found in Israel/Palestine

Featured Article The Islamic Coinage

The first dated coins that can be assigned to the Muslims are copies of silver Dirhams of the Sassanian ruler Yazdegerd III, struck during the Caliphate of Uthman. These coins differ from the original ones in that an Arabic inscription is found in the obverse margins, normally reading "in the Name of Allah". The subsequent series was issued using types based on drachmas of Khosrau II, whose coins probably represented a significant proportion of the currency in circulation.

Dated coins exist from 680 CE (74 Hijri) and are named as 'Dinars'. These experimental issues were replaced in 683 CE (77 Hijri), except in North Africa and Spain, by completely epigraphical designs very similar to the designs adopted for the silver pieces but with a shorter reverse legend and no annulets or inner circles.

Recommended Books

The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Archaeology

Bethany Walker

Born from the fields of Islamic art and architectural history, the archaeological study of the Islamic societies is a relatively young discipline. With its roots in the colonial periods of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, its rapid development since the 1980s warrants a reevaluation of where the field stands today. This Handbook represents for the first time a survey of Islamic archaeology on a global scale.
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An Introduction to Islamic Archaeology

Marcus Milwright

This book offers an introduction to the archaeology of the Islamic world. It traces the history of the discipline from its earliest manifestations through to the present and evaluates the contribution made by archaeology to the understanding of key aspects of Islamic culture.
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Landscapes of the Islamic World Archaeology, History and Ethnography

Stephen McPhillips

Islamic societies of the past have often been characterized as urban, with rural and other extra-urban landscapes cast in a lesser or supporting role in the studies of Islamic history and archaeology. Yet throughout history, the countryside was frequently an engine of economic activity, the setting for agricultural and technological innovation.
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Islamic Art and Archaeology in Palestine

Myriam Rosen-Ayalon

Despite political upheavals under Muslim domination in the Middle Ages, Palestine was a center of great artistic activity recognized for its incredible dynamism. Its unique contribution to the Islamic “macrocosm,” however, never became the subject of extensive study. Numerous archeological excavations on this relatively small geographic area reveal the existence of extremely well preserved monuments.
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See Also

• Abrahamic History and Archaeology
• Levantine Archaeology
• al-Andalus
• Biblical Archaeology

Useful Resources

• [UR1] The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Archaeology
  This Handbook represents for the first time a survey of Islamic archaeology on a global scale, describing its disciplinary development and offering candid critiques of the state of the field today in the Central Islamic Lands, the Islamic West, Sub-Saharan Africa, and Asia. The international contributors to the volume address such themes as the timing and process of Islamization, the problems of periodization and regionalism in material culture, cities and countryside, cultural hybridity, cultural and religious diversity, natural resource management, international trade in the later historical periods, and migration. Critical assessments of the ways in which archaeologists today engage with Islamic cultural heritage and local communities closes the volume, highlighting the ethical issues related to studying living cultures and religions.
• [UR2] Islamic Archaeology: Introduction
  Islamic archaeology is a specialism within the discipline of archaeology. The term Islamic archaeology may be broadly defined as the examination of the physical remains of human activity and of the wider environment in regions of the world where the ruling elite professed the faith of Islam. Thus, archaeologists concern themselves with the material record of Muslim and non-Muslim communities in any given area or time period. This definition is sometimes extended to include the study of Muslim communities living under the dominion of non-Muslim elites. While the methods and analytical procedures followed in this specialism generally derive from other branches of archaeology, scholars have debated the extent to which Islamic archaeology should be defined specifically as the study of the material record of Muslim faith and practice. Islamic archaeology can be considered an historical discipline in the sense that it is the interpretation of the physical remains from periods for which there exist contemporary textual sources. The chronological boundaries are from 622 CE to the present, although many Islamic archaeologists also study the relationships between the material records of pre-Islamic and Islamic phases. It is often difficult to delimit the boundaries between Islamic archaeology and Islamic art history, and in some phases, particularly the early Islamic period (usually defined as 7th–10th centuries), there is considerable overlap in the objects of study (see also Walter Denny’s separate article, “Islamic Art”). Archaeology encompasses a wide range of activities in the retrieval of data (such as excavation, field survey, environmental sampling, photography, and remote sensing) and at the level of analysis (ranging from conventional concerns with dating, sequencing, typology, and distribution to the numerous forms of scientific testing). Archaeological projects involve specialists from many disciplines, and this multidisciplinary character is often reflected in published reports. Islamic archaeology has yet to develop an agreed corpus of “canonical” publications, and the selection given below is meant to introduce the reader to the main strands of recent research across most parts of the Islamic world.
  

References

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