Typically surrounded by important civic buildings, such as temples, basilicas, and public spaces, these forums not only served as hubs for daily life but also acted as symbols of Roman authority and power.

circa 750 BCE- 608 CE

Roman Forum
The Roman Forum (Foro Romano), located at the heart of ancient Rome, functioned as the epicenter of public, political, commercial, and religious life in the city for over a millennium. Its origins date back to the 7th century BCE, though it was progressively expanded and modified throughout Roman history, particularly during the Republican and Imperial periods. The forum's architecture reflected its status as a symbol of Rome’s power, with monumental structures such as the Temple of Saturn, the Senate House (Curia), and the Arch of Titus. Over time, the forum hosted a variety of public events, from elections and legal proceedings to public speeches and religious rituals. The forum was directly connected to the adjacent Roman political and religious institutions, reinforcing the central role it played in Rome’s civic and imperial operations. Notably, the forum was strategically situated at the foot of the Capitoline Hill, forming a critical axis between the Roman government and the Roman people.

By the late Empire, the Roman Forum had become a site of monumental ruin, particularly following the decline of the Western Roman Empire. Despite this, it continued to influence urban planning and civic architecture in Rome well into the medieval period, with its remnants being used for various purposes over the centuries. The forum's significance is not only architectural but also historical, as it serves as a testament to the evolution of Roman society from a republic to a vast imperial power. Extensive excavations over the past few centuries have revealed a wealth of sculptures, inscriptions, and architectural fragments that shed light on the forum’s role in the ancient world. Today, the Roman Forum stands as one of the most visited and studied archaeological sites globally, offering unparalleled insights into the political, cultural, and social dynamics of ancient Rome (Horsley, 2010; Coarelli, 2007).

circa 550 BCE

Forum Boarium
The Forum Boarium (Foro Boario), located near the Tiber River, was one of the most important marketplaces in ancient Rome, primarily known for its role in the city's cattle and fish trade. This central hub was significant for commerce and daily life, particularly due to its location between the Circus Maximus and the river. The forum also served as a key intersection for roads coming from the north and east, making it an important transportation center in the city. Though it suffered frequent fires and floods, the Forum Boarium remained a vital area for centuries, reflecting both the economic and symbolic power of Rome.

Among the most notable structures in the Forum Boarium were the temples of Hercules and Portunus, both built in the 2nd century BCE. These temples stand out not only for their architectural elegance but also for their preservation, owing largely to their conversion into Christian churches during the medieval period, which helped protect them from the ravages of time. The circular Temple of Hercules, with its striking columned design, draws comparisons to the Temple of Vesta in the Roman Forum, showcasing the enduring influence of Roman religious and architectural traditions. These temples, alongside the forum's other monuments, highlight the Forum Boarium's role as both a commercial and religious center in ancient Rome

circa 400 BCE

Pompeii Forum
The Pompeii Forum (Foro de Pompeya), was founded in the 6th century BCE, during the early stages of the city's development. It became the center of Pompeii's political, commercial, and religious activities as the city grew and became a major Roman colony after its conquest in 89 BCE. The forum underwent significant expansion and renovation throughout the 1st century BCE and 1st century CE, reaching its peak under the Roman Empire. It is a testament to the urban planning of Pompeii, featuring important structures such as temples, a basilica, and a marketplace, all laid out in typical Roman fashion.

circa 45-25 BCE

Colonial Forum of Tarraco
The colonial forum of Tarraco is an ancient Roman archaeological site located in the modern city of Tarragona in Catalonia, Spain.

circa 46 BCE

Forum of Caesar
The Forum of Caesar (Foro di Cesare), inaugurated in 46 BCE, was the first of the imperial fora built in Rome. Created by Julius Caesar to accommodate the growing demands of the city's population, it was both a political statement and a practical response to the crowded conditions of the Roman Forum. The forum was constructed on land that Caesar had acquired by clearing the space between the Capitoline and Quirinal Hills. Its centerpiece was the Temple of Venus Genetrix, a deity claimed by Caesar as his ancestor, which reinforced his divine lineage and political legitimacy. The temple, built in honor of Venus, was meant to legitimize Caesar’s power, as well as to serve as a place for both religious ceremonies and civic gatherings. The surrounding spaces housed shops, meeting places, and a large portico that added to the forum's functionality, making it a social and administrative hub. Though the original structure has been largely lost to time, the Forum of Caesar marked the beginning of a trend in Roman architecture where monumental forums became expressions of imperial authority and personal legacy.

circa 25 BCE

Roman Forum of Mérida
The Roman Forum of Mérida, located in the modern city of Mérida, Spain, was once the main civic center of Emerita Augusta, the capital of the Roman province of Lusitania, founded by Emperor Augustus in 25 BCE. This forum, along with the Provincial Forum, which was reconstructed in 50 CE, played a central role in the political, administrative, and social life of the city. Together with the city's other significant archaeological sites, these forums were inscribed as part of the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1993. Mérida’s extensive ruins, which include temples, theatres, and bathhouses, have remained largely intact over the millennia, making it one of the most significant repositories of Roman architectural remains in Spain.

Mérida’s archaeological landscape is representative of typical Roman urban planning, with monumental buildings that have preserved a wealth of historical and architectural detail. Among the most notable structures in the Roman Forum is the Temple of Diana, which, despite its name, was likely dedicated to the imperial cult rather than the goddess Diana. Erected during Augustus' reign, the temple is a key example of Roman religious architecture. The Portico, located near the Temple of Diana, is another significant structure, built in the 1st century and featuring niches for statues. It was restored in the 20th century and its remains are now housed in the National Museum of Roman Art. Additionally, the Basilica and Baths are integral parts of the Roman public spaces, reflecting the complex social and civic life in Emerita Augusta. These structures, along with the Temple of Mars, dedicated to the imperial cult, highlight the city's importance in the Roman Empire, particularly as a cultural and administrative center for the province of Lusitania.

circa 27-17 BCE

Roman Agora of Athens
The Roman Agora of Athens (Foro di Augusto), constructed close to the end of the 1st century BCE, serves as a significant testament to the Roman influence in the heart of Greece. Located to the north of the Athenian Acropolis, this forum was built under the patronage of Roman Emperor Augustus, who sought to enhance Athens' status as a cultural and political center within the Roman Empire. Unlike the grand imperial forums of Rome, the Roman Agora of Athens was more modest in scale but still reflected the Roman penchant for integrating civic, commercial, and religious functions within a single public space. It was designed to accommodate a variety of activities, from daily markets to public gatherings, and was anchored by key structures like the Tower of the Winds, which served as a timepiece and wind vane, and the Gate of Athena Archegetis, a monumental entrance that symbolized the blend of Roman and Greek cultural influences. The forum was not only a space for administration and trade but also embodied the Roman efforts to leave their mark on Athenian life while respecting its ancient heritage.

circa 14 BCE

Roman Forum of Berytus (Beirut)
The Berytus Forum (modern-day Beirut) was once the site of a thriving Roman cultural and administrative center. Originally founded as a Phoenician city, Berytus became an important Roman province after its annexation in 14 BCE. Under Roman rule, it was transformed into a major hub of law and education, particularly known for its prestigious law school. This educational institution contributed significantly to Roman jurisprudence, influencing the codification of legal principles throughout the empire. Additionally, the city became a vital trading post due to its strategic location along Mediterranean trade routes.

In the 3rd century CE, the Forum of Berytus was embellished with grand public buildings, temples, and a Roman-style forum, showcasing the wealth and power the city held during this period. Despite suffering from multiple earthquakes over the centuries, the remnants of the forum and its surrounding structures continue to provide valuable archaeological insights into Roman urban planning and society. The historical significance of Berytus extends beyond its architectural contributions, marking it as a key player in the spread of Roman culture and law throughout the Mediterranean region.

circa 2 BCE

Forum of Augustus
The Forum of Augustus (Foro di Augusto), completed in 2 BCE, was one of the most significant architectural achievements of Augustus' reign. It was designed as a symbol of the emperor's power and his restoration of order after the turmoil of Rome’s civil wars. Located adjacent to the Roman Forum, it was a grand public space meant to serve both political and religious purposes. The forum was dominated by the imposing Temple of Mars Ultor (Mars the Avenger), which Augustus vowed to build after avenging Julius Caesar's assassination at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BCE. This temple housed statues of Mars and other deities associated with military victory, underscoring Augustus' narrative of peace secured through military strength. The surrounding colonnade was adorned with statues of Roman generals and gods, creating a visual link between Augustus and Rome’s historical military triumphs. The Forum of Augustus also included a portico with an exhibition of captured enemy standards, highlighting the emperor’s military successes. Though much of the forum is now lost, it remains a key example of how Augustus used public monuments to cement his authority and craft a lasting imperial image.

circa 50 CE

Roman Provincial Forum of Mérida
The Roman Provincial Forum of Mérida, located in modern-day Spain, was constructed during the 1st century CE in the Roman city of Emerita Augusta, which was founded in 25 BCE. Serving as the capital of the Roman province of Lusitania, the forum earned its designation as a "provincial" center due to its administrative importance. It, along with other Roman structures in the city, was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1993, reflecting its historical and archaeological significance.

At the heart of the forum was a large square, bordered by a monumental portico. A temple, central to the layout, was accessed through the Arch of Trajan. The forum's most notable buildings included the triumphal Arch of Tiberius, located at the end of the cardo maximus, the main road of Emerita Augusta. Built of granite and standing 13.97 meters high, the arch was originally adorned with marble, though much of its decoration has since been lost. Additionally, the forum housed a temple constructed during the reign of Tiberius, which was further enhanced with marble decoration during the reign of Emperor Claudius, contributing to its grandeur.

circa 60 CE

Roman forum of Philippopolis
The Roman Forum of Philippopolis, located in the heart of modern Plovdiv, Bulgaria, is a sprawling rectangular plaza that served as the epicenter of public, administrative, commercial, and religious activity in the ancient city of Philippopolis. Dating to the 1st century CE, the forum was established during Emperor Vespasian's reign, when the city was redesigned with a Roman urban plan. The forum's design follows the traditional Roman model, with the cardo and decumanus maximus—the main streets of the city—intersecting near its eastern entrance. Spanning an impressive 20 hectares, of which 11 hectares have been excavated, it holds the distinction of being the largest Roman forum in Bulgaria. Surrounding the forum were significant public buildings, including an odeon, a library, and a treasury, reflecting its role as a hub for civic and cultural life. Today, the remnants of this ancient center are seamlessly integrated into Plovdiv’s vibrant pedestrian zone, offering a unique glimpse into its storied past.

circa 75 CE

Provincial forum of Tarraco
The Roman forum of Tarraco, constructed in 73 CE under Emperor Vespasian's orders, functioned as the administrative, religious, and ceremonial center of the city. Its use persisted until the mid-5th century CE, when the surrounding buildings were repurposed into private residences. By the 12th century, urbanization of the square led to the development of a medieval street layout, which remains a defining feature of Tarragona's historic district today.

The forum encompassed two principal areas: a sacred enclosure and a vast public square for gatherings and performances. The worship area, seated at the city's highest point—currently occupied by the Cathedral and its square—measured 153 by 136 meters and was enclosed by a 9-meter-high perimeter wall. This wall supported a portico with towering 13.5-meter columns that encircled the site, which housed the grand temple of Augustus. The exact location of the temple remains uncertain despite its monumental scale.

The performance square, situated on a lower terrace and connected to the worship area via a grand staircase (aligning with the modern-day stairs in front of the Cathedral), was an architectural marvel. Spanning 175 meters in width and 318 meters in length, it was the largest square constructed in the Roman Empire. This space was bordered on three sides by a podium with an extensive portico and pilaster walls, remnants of which still stand. Behind the portico, a vaulted gallery likely supported an upper tier. The towers of the Pretorio and the Ancient Courthouse, located at the southern corners of this square, served as key passageways, linking the circus below to the upper gallery and square above.

The buildings surrounding the forum included essential Roman structures such as the Provincial Council, Circus, Tabularium (state archive), State Treasury, Curia, Audience Hall, and the Temple of Imperial Worship, reflecting Tarraco's prominence as the capital of Hispania Tarraconensis.

circa 75 CE

Forum of Vespasian or the Temple of Peace
The "Temple of Peace" (Templum Pacis) or "Forum of Peace" (Forum Pacis) was constructed in the early years of Emperor Vespasian's rule, around 71 CE, following his victory in the Jewish War. This monumental complex was dedicated to the goddess Pax (Peace) and commemorated the peace brought by Vespasian's military campaigns, particularly his triumph over Judea. The Forum itself, located in the heart of Rome, featured a grand temple surrounded by a large open space, which served both religious and civic functions. The structure was lavishly adorned with war spoils, including treasures from the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem, and the temple's completion marked a significant moment in Vespasian’s consolidation of power after the tumultuous Year of the Four Emperors. The Forum of Vespasian was part of a broader program of monumental building projects that aimed to restore the grandeur of Rome following the chaos of civil wars. Though largely destroyed over time, remnants of the Forum’s grandeur, including sculptural reliefs and inscriptions, continue to provide valuable insights into the emperor’s legacy and the Roman imperial ideology of peace through military conquest.

circa 97 CE

Forum of Nerva
The Forum of Nerva (Foro di Nerva), completed in 97 CE under Emperor Nerva, was the smallest of the Imperial Fora but one of the most significant in terms of its political symbolism. Built to complete the space between the Forum of Augustus and the Forum of Vespasian, it symbolized the transition of power following the turbulent Year of the Four Emperors (69 CE), when Nerva came to power. His reign was short but marked by a focus on restoring stability and promoting the welfare of Rome's people. The forum was a gift to the people, conceived as a monument to imperial benevolence. It featured a grand temple, dedicated to Nerva, and the area was bordered by a colonnade and open spaces for public gatherings. The most striking feature of the forum was the Temple of Minerva, which not only celebrated the goddess of wisdom but also emphasized the intellectual and cultural aspirations of Nerva’s reign. Though the physical structure is largely in ruins today, its legacy endures in the continued use of public spaces by later emperors, reflecting Nerva's important role in establishing the future stability of the empire.

circa 98-117 CE

Timgad Roman Forum
The Roman Forum of Timgad, established around 100 CE under Emperor Trajan, was the heart of the city’s civic and social life, designed in typical Roman fashion with a large open space surrounded by important public buildings. As Timgad grew throughout the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE, the forum became a focal point for administrative, religious, and commercial activities, reflecting the Romanization of North Africa. However, by the 4th and 5th centuries CE, the forum fell into decline due to economic strain and external invasions, with many structures becoming repurposed or abandoned. Rediscovered in the 19th century, the forum has since been extensively excavated, offering insight into Roman urban planning and the city’s cultural significance before its eventual decline and abandonment in the face of shifting political and military landscapes.

circa 112 CE

Forum of Trajan
The Trajan's Forum, completed in 112 CE, is one of the most magnificent and well-preserved imperial forums in Rome. Commissioned by Emperor Trajan and designed by the architect Apollodorus of Damascus, the forum was built to celebrate Trajan’s victory in the Dacian Wars (101–106 CE). It was the largest of the Imperial Fora, designed to serve both as a monumental public space and as a reflection of Roman imperial power. The centerpiece of the complex was the massive Basilica Ulpia, an expansive hall used for legal and commercial activities, flanked by two libraries—one in Latin and one in Greek—containing extensive collections that reflected Rome’s cultural diversity. The most famous feature of the forum is the Trajan's Column, a 30-meter-high monument that depicts in intricate reliefs the emperor’s military campaigns in Dacia. The column, along with the surrounding decorations, served as both a celebratory monument and a propaganda tool. Other elements of the forum included the grand temple of Trajan and expansive open spaces, which were used for public gatherings, rituals, and administrative purposes. The forum’s construction was not only a display of Trajan’s military success but also an embodiment of Roman architectural and engineering prowess, with innovations in the use of concrete and the integration of monumental sculpture. Despite significant damage over the centuries, the ruins of the Forum of Trajan remain a testament to Rome's imperial grandeur and its ability to combine function with monumental artistry.

circa 112 CE

Forum of Gerasa
The Roman forum of ancient Gerasa (modern-day Jerash) features a unique oval plaza, distinct from the usual rectangular form found in other Roman forums. This oval plaza was constructed around the early 2nd century CE, under Emperor Trajan's rule, as an extension of the main street (the Cardo Maximus) to connect it with the Sanctuary of Zeus. The plaza's design was meant to bridge the misalignment between these two axes, widening the street into an oval form in front of the sanctuary's entrance. The plaza is lined with Ionic columns, and while the initial construction likely occurred during Trajan's reign, the paving wasn't completed until the 4th century CE.

The space is considered one of the architectural highlights of Jerash, reflecting the grandeur of Roman urban design. Notably, the center of the plaza featured two monuments, one of which supported a group of statues, and the other a tetrakionion, possibly dedicated to Emperor Hadrian. This large colonnaded square is integral to the city's layout, connecting the central street with the sacred and public spaces of ancient Gerasa.

circa 125 CE

Forum of Vieux-la-Romaine
The forum of Vieux, located in present-day France, was constructed in the early 2nd century CE, with modifications made within the same century and further enhancements during the first third of the 3rd century. These improvements coincided with the forum’s peak period, reflecting the prosperity of the region at the time. However, following a political and administrative shift, the forum was repurposed by the end of the 3rd century into a butcher's shop. This shift in function occurred as the territory of Viducasses was partially absorbed by the neighboring city of Bayeux.

The rectangular layout of the forum measures 115 meters by 51.5 meters, with two decumani providing access from the longer sides. Located at the edge of a plateau overlooking the La Guigne valley, the forum was surrounded by streets, including two decumani and a cardo. The central square, which measures 68 meters by 21 meters, was divided into two distinct areas: a sacred space to the west, featuring a temple, and a public space to the east. Surrounding the square were a series of shops, each ranging from 5.9 to 6.2 meters in width, separated by porticos that provided access.

To the north of the square, archaeological excavations revealed the presence of additional shops and portico galleries that underwent alterations over time. Meanwhile, the southern area contained shops that remained largely unchanged and the remains of a thermal building, discovered in the 19th century. Traces to the west of the square suggest further developments, although their precise nature remains unclear. Notably, two shops uncovered in the western part of the north-south axis were identified as a grain and pottery seller's shop and a pottery workshop, complete with a kiln, highlighting the site's commercial significance. These shops, however, were destroyed by the end of the 3rd century.

circa 175 CE

Ancient Agora of Thessaloniki (Roman Forum)
The Ancient Roman Forum in Thessaloniki is a significant archaeological site located at the junction of two main roads, which originally connected the city to its harbor and the acropolis. The forum was built at the end of the 2nd century CE, over a pre-existing Hellenistic agora. It served as the social, administrative, economic, and religious center of Thessaloniki during the Roman period. The structure of the forum included two monumental squares, with one of them still buried beneath Aristotelous Square, while the other consists of a large rectangular area that was originally paved with marble blocks. Key features of the site include the remains of the Odeon, which hosted performances and events, and a multi-story cryptoporticus (a covered walkway). Archaeological excavations have also uncovered Hellenistic baths, early Christian murals, and mosaic floors.

The forum was accessed through an imposing arcade, which was once adorned with sculptures known as "Las Incantadas" or "The Enchanted Ones," now housed in the Louvre Museum in Paris. The space was not only a commercial hub but also a cultural and spiritual focal point of the city. Today, the site offers visitors a glimpse into its past through a museum located in a restored underground hall. The area surrounding the forum is also home to several modern cafes and cultural spaces, making it an active part of Thessaloniki's social life.