The Black Stone (Hajar al-Aswad) has been an object of veneration since pre-Islamic times and continues to be a central part of Islamic religious tradition. It is set into the Kaaba's eastern wall and is regarded with deep reverence by Muslims worldwide. Islamic tradition holds that the Black Stone was placed in its current position by the Prophet Muhammad in 605 CE during the reconstruction of the Kaaba, five years before his first revelation. It is believed to have originally been a single piece, but over time, due to various incidents of damage, it has broken into multiple fragments that are now held together by a silver frame.

Physically, the Hajar al-Aswad is a dark, polished rock, smoothed over centuries by the hands of pilgrims who touch and kiss it as part of the tawaf ritual during the hajj pilgrimage. It has often been described as a meteorite, though this theory remains speculative. While Islamic theology emphasizes that the stone itself has no divine power, its historical and spiritual significance remains profound.

The Black Stone has been subjected to various historical events, including desecrations, theft, and damage. One of the most notable incidents was its theft by the Qarmatians (قرامطة) in 930 CE, who held it for over two decades before returning it to Mecca. Despite such events, the Black Stone continues to be an essential part of the history of the Kaaba, its structure, and Islamic rituals, symbolizing the continuity of faith and devotion over centuries.

circa 600 CE

The Hajar al-Aswad (Black Stone) was held in reverence well before Islam. It had long been associated with the Kaaba, which was built in the pre-Islamic period and was a site of pilgrimage of Nabataeans, who visited the shrine once a year to perform their pilgrimage. The Kaaba held 360 idols of the Meccan gods. The Semitic cultures of the Middle East had a tradition of using unusual stones to mark places of worship, while bowing, worshiping, and praying to such sacred objects is also described in the Tanakh as idolatrous and was the subject of prophetic rebuke. The meteorite-origin theory of the Black Stone has seen it likened by some writers to the meteorite which was placed and worshipped in the Greek Temple of Artemis, however, this remains a speculation for the most part.

The Kaaba has also been associated with fertility rites of ancient Arabia. Some New Age writers remark on the apparent similarity of the Hajar al-Aswad and its frame to the external female genitalia. However, the silver frame was placed on the Black Stone to secure the fragments after the original stone was broken.

A "red stone" was associated with the deity of the south Arabian city of Ghaiman, and there was a "white stone" in the Kaaba of al-Abalat (near the city of Tabala, south of Makkah). Worship at that time period was often associated with stone reverence, mountains, special rock formations, or distinctive trees. The Kaaba marked the location where the sacred world intersected with the profane, and the embedded Black Stone was a further symbol of this as an object linking heaven and earth. Aziz al-Azmeh claims that the divine name ar-Rahman (one of the names of God in Islam and cognate to one of the Jewish names of God Ha'Rachaman, both meaning "the Merciful One" or "the Gracious One") was used for astral gods in Mecca and might have been associated with the Black Stone. Prophet Muhammad is said to have called the stone "the right hand of al-Rahman".

circa 600 CE

Pre-Islamic Arabia
The Hajar al-Aswad was revered by the Nabataeans and other Arab tribes long before the advent of Islam. It was embedded in the Kaaba, which was a central site of pilgrimage for pre-Islamic Arabian tribes. The Kaaba itself contained 360 idols representing the deities of various Meccan tribes. Worship involving sacred stones was a widespread practice in the region, with other significant stones found in various religious sites, such as the "red stone" of Ghaiman and the "white stone" of al-Abalat.

Early Islamic Period
According to Islamic belief, prophet Muhammad played a significant role in setting the Black Stone in its place. A story found in Ibn Ishaq's Sirah Rasul Allah describes how the Meccan clans, during the reconstruction of the Kaaba following a fire, disputed over which clan should have the honor of placing the Black Stone. Prophet Muhammad, at the age of 35, proposed a solution where the Black Stone was placed on a cloth, and each clan leader lifted a corner, ensuring collective participation. Prophet Muhammad then set the stone in place himself, resolving the dispute peacefully.

After his conquest of Mecca in 630 CE, prophet Muhammad is said to have performed tawaf around the Kaaba while touching the Black Stone with his staff as a gesture of reverence.

Caliphate Period
The Hajar al-Aswad suffered significant damage during the Umayyad siege of Mecca in 683 CE when it was reportedly struck and shattered by a stone fired from a catapult. The fragments were later rejoined using a silver ligament by Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr.

One of the most significant events in the history of the Hajar al-Aswad occurred in January 930 CE, when it was stolen by the Qarmatians, a radical sect based in Hajar (modern Eastern Arabia). According to Ottoman historian Qutb al-Din, the Qarmatian leader Abu Tahir al-Jannabi transported the stone to his mosque, Masjid al-Dirar, in an attempt to redirect the hajj pilgrimage away from Mecca. However, despite the stone's absence, pilgrims continued to visit the Kaaba.

According to the historian al-Juwayni, the Black Stone was returned in 952 CE, after twenty-three years. The Qarmatians demanded and received a substantial ransom from the Abbasids in exchange for its return. It was eventually wrapped in a sack and thrown into the Friday Mosque of Kufa with a note stating, "By command we took it, and by command we have brought it back". The stone was further damaged during its abduction, breaking into seven pieces. To preserve it, Meccan goldsmiths constructed a silver frame, which has been periodically replaced over time and continues to encase the fragments today.

Post-Caliphate Until Modern Period
In the 11th century, a man allegedly sent by the Fatimid caliph al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah attempted to destroy the Black Stone but was killed on the spot, causing only minor damage. In 1674 CE, according to the traveler Johann Ludwig Burckhardt, an individual allegedly smeared the Black Stone with excrement to defile it. This act led to violent repercussions, with Persian pilgrims being targeted and attacked in Mecca. The explorer Richard Francis Burton later noted that such an act would have been condemned by both Sunnis and Shi'as, and he speculated that the true perpetrator might have been a Jew or Christian acting out of religious animosity.

The Black Stone remains a revered object in Islamic tradition, encased in a silver frame, and is an essential part of the hajj pilgrimage, where pilgrims attempt to touch or kiss it as part of their rites.

circa 600 CE

Over the centuries, various observers have recorded differing measurements and descriptions of the Black Stone, reflecting both its physical changes and the challenges in accurately assessing its size and composition.

In the 10th century CE, an observer described the Black Stone as measuring one cubit (46 centimeters or 18 inches) in length. By the early 17th century CE, recorded measurements had significantly increased, with the stone reported as being 140 by 122 centimeters (4 feet 7 inches by 4 feet 0 inches). In the 18th century CE, Ali Bey described its height as 110 centimeters (3 feet 7 inches), while Muhammad Ali Pasha recorded it as 76 centimeters (2 feet 6 inches) in length and 46 centimeters (1 foot 6 inches) in width. These variations suggest that the stone's fragments were rearranged multiple times over the centuries, affecting its recorded dimensions.

European travelers who visited Mecca disguised as pilgrims in the 19th and early 20th centuries CE provided some of the most detailed descriptions of the Black Stone. Swiss traveler Johann Ludwig Burckhardt visited Mecca in 1814 CE and later published his observations in Travels in Arabia (1829 CE). He described the Hajar al-Aswad as an irregular oval, about 18 centimeters (7 inches) in diameter, composed of several smaller stones cemented together:

It looks as if the whole had been broken into as many pieces by a violent blow, and then united again. It is very difficult to determine accurately the quality of this stone, which has been worn to its present surface by the millions of touches and kisses it has received. It appeared to me like a lava, containing several small extraneous particles of a whitish and of a yellow substance. Its colour is now a deep reddish-brown approaching to black.

Burckhardt also noted the presence of a surrounding border made of a cement-like material, which held the fragments together. This border, about 5–7 centimeters (2–3 inches) wide, was secured by a silver band, broader at the base than at the top, and studded with silver nails.

In 1853 CE, British explorer Richard Francis Burton visited Mecca and described the Black Stone's metallic sheen and recessed surface:

The colour appeared to me black and metallic, and the centre of the stone was sunk about two inches below the metallic circle. Round the sides was a reddish-brown cement, almost level with the metal, and sloping down to the middle of the stone. The band is now a massive arch of gold or silver gilt. I found the aperture in which the stone is, one span and three fingers broad.

An analysis of a fragment of the Black Stone removed by Muhammad Ali Pasha in 1817 CE was later documented by Ritter von Laurin, the Austrian consul-general in Egypt. He reported that the exterior of the fragment was pitch-black, while its interior was silver-grey and fine-grained, embedded with tiny bottle-green mineral inclusions. Additional observations noted the presence of a few white or yellow spots on the stone’s surface. Official descriptions indicate that, apart from its exposed face, the stone is predominantly white.

These historical descriptions highlight the Black Stone's evolving physical condition, shaped by centuries of reverence, damage, and restoration.

circa 600 CE

The Hajar al-Aswad was originally a single, solid rock, but over time, it has fractured into multiple smaller pieces. Today, these fragments are cemented together and encased in a silver frame, which is fastened to the outer wall of the Bait ul-Allah with silver nails. The exposed surface of the Black Stone measures approximately 20 centimeters (7.9 inches) by 16 centimeters (6.3 inches), though its original dimensions remain uncertain. The recorded size of the stone has varied significantly over the centuries, as its fragments have been rearranged within the cement matrix multiple times.

The Black Stone is positioned in the eastern corner of the Kaaba, known as al-Rukn al-Aswad ("The Corner of the Black Stone"). This placement may hold ritual significance, as the eastern direction aligns with the rain-bringing wind (al-qabul) and the rising position of Canopus, one of the most prominent stars in the Arabian night sky.

For centuries, the silver frame encasing the Black Stone and the kiswah (the black cloth covering the Kaaba) were maintained by the Ottoman Sultans, who held the title of Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques. Due to constant handling by pilgrims, the silver frame would wear out over time and require periodic replacement. The worn-out frames were transported to Istanbul, where they remain preserved among the sacred relics housed in the Topkapı Palace.