Renowned for its monumental layout and state of preservation, Leptis Magna is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and a principal example of a major North African city shaped by Phoenician, Carthaginian, and Roman cultural influences.

Archaeological excavations have revealed remnants of grand Roman period buildings at Leptis Magna, showcasing its significance as a hub of political and administrative activity in the city during its peak. Today, these remains provide valuable insights into the governance and civic life of Leptis Magna under Roman rule, specifically during Roman Empire period, reflecting its importance as a regional center in ancient North Africa.

circa

Origins and Phoenician Period (circa 650 - 146 BCE)
Leptis Magna, also known as Lepcis Magna, was originally founded as a Phoenician settlement in the seventh century BCE. Although, some traditions mention that the city may have been founded as eary as the eighth century BCE. Situated on the Mediterranean coast in what is now modern-day Libya, the city was strategically positioned to take advantage of maritime trade routes. The Phoenicians, renowned for their seafaring and trading skills, established Leptis Magna as a key port city, facilitating trade between various Mediterranean civilizations and the African interior. As part of the Carthaginian Empire, Leptis Magna thrived as a commercial hub, benefiting from the extensive trade networks of the Carthaginians. Eventually, the city fell under the control of the Numidians, a Berber kingdom that dominated much of North Africa prior to Roman conquest.

Roman Establishment (146 BCE - 1st century CE):
In 146 BCE, following the defeat of Carthage in the Third Punic War, Leptis Magna came under Roman influence, during the last period of Roman Republic. The Romans recognized the strategic and commercial importance of the city and began to integrate it into their expanding empire. By the first century CE, Leptis Magna had been fully incorporated into the Roman Empire and started to flourish as a significant trade hub. The city benefited from Roman infrastructure, including roads, aqueducts, and public buildings, which facilitated trade and communication. Roman investment in the city's infrastructure and economy helped it grow in wealth and importance. Leptis Magna's strategic location made it a vital center for trade between the Roman Empire and the African interior, dealing in commodities such as olive oil, grain, and exotic animals. This period marked the beginning of the city's transformation into one of the most important and prosperous cities in Roman Africa.

Golden Age under Roman Rule (1st century - 3rd century CE):
The city reached its zenith during the reign of emperor Septimius Severus, who was born in Leptis Magna in 145 CE. As emperor, Severus favored his hometown and initiated an ambitious building program that transformed it into one of the most splendid cities in the Roman Empire. Notable constructions included a new forum, basilica, and an impressive triumphal arch dedicated to Severus himself. The city's prosperity during this period was largely due to its strategic location, facilitating trade across the Mediterranean and into Africa.

Decline and Byzantine Era (4th century - 6th century CE)
Leptis Magna began to decline in the 4th century as the Roman Empire faced increasing internal turmoil and external pressures. The city suffered further damage during the Vandal invasion in the 5th century CE. The Byzantines, under emperor Justinian the Great, recaptured the city in the 6th century CE and attempted to restore some of its former glory. However, the restoration efforts were limited, and Leptis Magna never regained its previous prominence.

Islamic Conquest and Abandonment (7th century CE - present):
The final blow to Leptis Magna came with the Islamic conquest in the 7th century CE. The city's infrastructure was not maintained, and it gradually fell into ruin. Over the centuries, Leptis Magna was largely abandoned and forgotten. It was rediscovered by European explorers in the 19th century CE, leading to archaeological excavations that revealed its historical and architectural significance. Today, Leptis Magna is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, recognized for its well-preserved ruins that offer a glimpse into the grandeur of ancient Rome.

circa 100 BCE

Temple of Serapis (Serapeum)
The Temple of Serapis (Serapeum) at Leptis Magna was a significant religious structure dedicated to the syncretic Greco-Egyptian deity Serapis, whose cult became widespread in the Roman Empire during the 2nd century CE. The temple was constructed during the reign of emperor Marcus Aurelius (161-180 CE) and was notable for its use of columns made of a rare, blue-veined marble. Architecturally, the temple was built on a podium and featured a portico with steps and frontal columns. The extant remains include a well-preserved vestibule with an architrave bearing an inscription that dates a later addition, a propylon, to the Severan dynasty (193–235 CE).

This inscription names Ilius Aurelius Menekles as the donor and references a coffered ceiling adorned with busts of gods and demigods, ten panels of which are mostly preserved. The temple's presence in the city highlights the assimilation of Eastern cults into the Roman provincial context and the architectural opulence of Leptis Magna during its peak under Roman rule.

circa 8 BCE

New Macellum Market
The macellum (market) at Leptis Magna, a permanent, specialized food market, constitutes a significant example of Roman provincial urban planning with unique local adaptations. Erected in 9–8 BCE, this complex was a donation by the wealthy Punic citizen Annobal Tapapius Rufus, as evidenced by a large bilingual inscription in Latin and Neo-Punic, which attests to the blend of local and Roman identities during the city's Augustan phase. The structure features a large, rectangular porticoed courtyard with shops (tabernae) arranged along three sides.

A notable deviation from typical Roman macella is the inclusion of two centrally located, octagonal tholoi (circular structures with conical or domed roofs supported by columns) within the paved area, rather than a single central one. One of these tholoi included a central pool, suggesting its specific use as a dedicated fish market, facilitating the sale of perishable goods. The market's original entrance was on the south side, marked by a symbol of the god Mercury, a deity associated with commerce. This monumental design, incorporating architectural influences from Republican Italy and Sicily, reflects the city's economic prosperity and its complete integration into the Roman commercial system.

circa 16 CE

Tiberian Arch
Tiberius succeeded emperor Augustus, who transformed the Roman Republic into a monarchy and reigned from 27 BCE until 14 CE. During the later years of Tiberius' rule, spanning from 14 to 37 CE, the people of Lepcis Magna paid tribute to their ruler by constructing a modest honorary arch, crafted from limestone, spanning the Cardo Maximus—the city's main thoroughfare.

The first photograph captures the Arch of Tiberius, viewed from the northeast, with the Arch of Trajan visible in the distance, a structure dating nearly a century later.

Interestingly, this arch is one of two dedicated to Tiberius in Lepcis Magna. Remains of a second arch have been discovered in a street parallel to the Cardo Maximus, north of the Portico behind the Theater. The duplication of such honors likely stems from the immediate motive for their construction: the renovation of streets surrounding at least two city blocks (insulae). It is plausible that the area between these two arches, which encompassed the Chalcidicum and the theater precinct, was refurbished as part of a unified urban improvement initiative.

The inscription found on both arches records that they were erected during the governorship of Gaius Rubellius Blandus, executed through his deputy Marcus Etrilius Lupercus. Rubellius Blandus governed Africa from 35 to 36 CE. The inscription further commemorates the paving of several streets, financed by the proceeds from confiscated lands in the interior, taken from native tribes after the Tacfarinas revolt (17-24 CE) at the outset of Tiberius' reign.

circa 20 CE

Via Trionfale
The Via Trionfale (Triumphal Way) at Leptis Magna served as a principal artery of the Roman city's monumental core, forming part of its primary street grid. This thoroughfare, along with the Cardo and Decumanus, was a major processional route that led from the city's harbor past key imperial structures, including the Hadrianic Baths and the Nymphaeum.

A significant feature of the Via Trionfale is the Arch of Septimius Severus, a quadrifrons (four-sided) triumphal arch erected around 203 CE at the intersection of the Cardo and Decumanus. The street itself was part of the ambitious building program initiated by the native-born emperor Septimius Severus to aggrandize his hometown, reflecting the city's peak prosperity and integration into the Roman Empire. While historical records indicate the existence of numerous arches in Roman cities, the archaeological evidence at Leptis Magna confirms the Via Trionfale's role as a key element of Severan urban planning, designed for grand imperial processions and public display.

circa 20 CE

Cardo Maximus
The Cardo Maximus at Leptis Magna constituted the primary north-south oriented street, functioning as an essential component of Roman urban planning, which typically emphasized an orthogonal (grid) layout. This main thoroughfare was not perfectly straight throughout its length in the manner of a newly founded Roman colony, but rather adapted to the existing Punic-era urban fabric, exhibiting a slight directional change near the intersection with the arterial coast road (the Decumanus Maximus). The street was a bustling commercial and civic hub, flanked by colonnades that provided covered walkways for pedestrians and housed numerous shops (tabernae). Key public buildings and monuments, including the Arch of Tiberius (erected in 35–36 CE), were strategically located along this axis, highlighting its importance in the city's infrastructure and social life. The intersection of the Cardo Maximus and Decumanus Maximus was further monumentalized by the erection of the four-sided Arch of Septimius Severus around 203 CE, a symbol of imperial power and civic pride that marked the zenith of the city's prosperity. The street was also notable for its sophisticated infrastructure, including integrated drainage systems and large stone paving slabs, which facilitated efficient movement of both pedestrian and wheeled traffic.

circa 20 CE

Decumanus Maximus
The Decumanus Maximus represents a fascinating example of urban development that deviates from the rigid orthogonal planning of a typical newly founded Roman colony, instead evolving from an existing ancient Punic coastal road that connected Oea (Tripoli) with ancient Cyrene (historic region of Cyrenaica). This major east-west artery was gradually incorporated into the expanding city as it grew, particularly during the first and second centuries CE. Rather than a singular, straight thoroughfare, the street adapted to the city's organic growth and the local topography near the Wadi Lebda river. This vital commercial corridor was lined with public buildings, shops (tabernae), and significant imperial monuments, reflecting the city's prosperity as a trade hub for commodities like grain, olive oil, and exotic animals. Key structures located along or adjacent to this street include the Hadrianic Baths and the colossal Nymphaeum. Its intersection with the Cardo Maximus was monumentalized by the erection of the Arch of Septimius Severus around 203 CE, a four-sided tetrapylon celebrating the home-born emperor's imperial visit and African triumphs. The street's eventual monumentalization with colonnades and grand architecture, especially during the Severan period, underscores Leptis Magna's transformation into one of the most opulent cities in the Roman Empire.

circa 20 CE

C. Gavius Macer Monument
The monument dedicated to Gaius Gavius Macer at Leptis Magna is an honorific base for an equestrian statue, erected by the city's inhabitants around 19 CE to recognize his services as a Roman senator. Gavius Macer, originally from Verona in Cisalpina Gaul, served as quaestor in 19 CE and later as legatus pro praetore, the deputy to the proconsular governor of Africa. It is hypothesized that he played a crucial role in the Roman war effort against the local Numidian leader Tacfarinas, an anti-Roman coalition leader, which earned him significant laudes (praise) from the Leptitanian administration. The monument's prominent inscription (inscription), preserved in a tabula ansata, provides valuable epigraphic evidence of the municipal honors bestowed upon Roman officials who effectively managed provincial affairs and defended imperial interests in North Africa. This monument highlights the complex relationship between local Punic elites and Roman administrators, and the civic pride in honoring individuals who fostered the city's integration and security within the broader Roman Empire during the early Imperial period.

circa 60-110 CE

Amphitheater
The construction on the amphitheater of Leptis Magna most likely started around 56 CE during the reign of emperor Nero and concluded around 110 CE, during the reign of emperor Trajan. This structure is one of the oldest and best-preserved amphitheaters in North Africa. It was designed to hold approximately 16,000 spectators and was used for various public spectacles, including gladiatorial contests, animal hunts, and other forms of entertainment typical of Roman amphitheaters. The amphitheater's construction showcases the city's wealth and its significance within the Roman Empire during that period.

The Amphitheater of Lepcis Magna was unearthed in a natural depression, possibly an old quarry, situated on the rocky terrace southeast of the city, near the sea. Adjacent to it, even closer to the sea, stood the circus, built about a century later. The amphitheater could host approximately 16,000 spectators in its stands, located about a kilometer away from the city center.

An inscription reveals that the amphitheater was inaugurated in 56 CE by Marcus Pompeius Silvanus Staberius Flavinus, the governor of Africa, during his third year in office, with Quintus Cassius Gratus serving as his deputy. The monument was dedicated to the young emperor Nero (reigned 54-68).

The oval arena measures 57 x 47 meters. The lower seats were reserved for the elite of Lepcis Magna, who favored the southeastern side for its favorable breezes. Today, remnants such as stone slabs that once formed the seating and other fragments of natural stone can still be seen. Among these relics is an altar dedicated to Nemesis, the Roman goddess of vengeance, a common figure in amphitheaters.

Not far from Lepcis Magna lies Villa Dar Buc Ammera, where a significant mosaic commemorates the gladiatorial combats of the city's amphitheater. Typically, the spectacle commenced early in the day with animal fights, such as bulls against bears. Around noon, condemned criminals faced execution ad bestias.

One notable mosaic scene from Villa Dar Buc Ammera depicts the execution of a criminal, likely a Garamantian native, tied to a pole and set upon by a hungry panther in the arena. During the tumultuous Year of the Four Emperors (69 CE), the people of Oea took advantage of civil strife to attack Lepcis Magna, joined by the Garamantes. Order was restored the following year by General Valerius Festus, possibly resulting in such executions.

Gladiatorial contests typically took place in the afternoon. The mosaic (Zliten Mosaic) at Villa Dar Buc Ammera identifies combatants as a murmillo (left: with one greave and a crest on his helmet) and a thraex (right: wearing high greaves). One figure, positioned awkwardly with his right leg too far forward, suffers a backhanded slash to the thigh, blood depicted in vivid detail, likely leading to a fatal outcome unless finished off swiftly.

The amphitheater likely had a surrounding (wooden) portico offering cheaper seating options. An entrance to the southeast once led to a sanctuary dedicated to Artemis (or Diana), reflecting her veneration in places like ancient Ephesus.

Below, an excavated cult statue from the reign of Hadrian (117-138 CE), initially discovered in 1912 CE, is now housed in the National Archaeological Museum in Tripoli. This statue depicts the cult of the "great mother goddess", a widely popular deity throughout the ancient Mediterranean, fitting for a cosmopolitan hub like Lepcis Magna.

circa 80-120 CE

Curia
The Curia at Leptis Magna was a significant civic building in the ancient Roman city, serving as the meeting place for the local Senate —ordo decurionum— (modeled structurally and conceptually on the Roman Senate). Located near the forum, the Curia was a symbol of civic pride and administrative prowess typical of Roman urban planning.

Constructed during the reign of emperor Hadrian (117-138 CE), the Curia exemplified Roman architectural grandeur, characterized by its spacious interior and ornate decorations. It functioned as a venue for Senate meetings, where local magistrates and senators deliberated on matters concerning the governance and welfare of Leptis Magna. The structure itself featured typical Roman architectural elements, including a rectangular layout with a porticoed entrance leading into a central hall. Inside, senators and officials gathered to discuss political, legal, and administrative issues vital to the city's administration and public life.

circa 110 CE

Arch of emperor Trajan
The Arch of emperor Trajan at Leptis Magna was a monumental structure erected to commemorate the achievements and victories of emperor Trajan, one of Rome's most celebrated leaders. Located prominently within the city, near its main thoroughfares or the forum, the arch served both as a symbol of imperial power and a testament to Trajan's military campaigns and public works.

Built during Trajan's reign (98-117 CE), the arch exemplified Roman triumphal architecture, featuring a grandiose design with a central passageway flanked by columns or pilasters adorned with intricate reliefs and sculptures. Such arches typically celebrated significant events, victories in battle, or the completion of major public projects, serving as both propaganda and public art.

circa 130 CE

Hadrianic Baths
The Hadrianic Baths were a remarkable complex of public baths constructed during the reign of emperor Hadrian (117-138 CE), showcasing Roman engineering and architectural prowess in North Africa.

Located near the center of Leptis Magna, the baths were a sprawling structure designed not only for hygiene but also as a social and recreational hub for the city's inhabitants. The complex typically included various chambers and halls dedicated to different stages of bathing, such as hot rooms (caldarium), warm rooms (tepidarium), and cold rooms (frigidarium), all heated through a sophisticated system of hypocausts.

The architecture of the Hadrianic Baths featured grand halls adorned with marble columns, intricate mosaics, and sculptures depicting mythological scenes and Roman deities, showcasing the opulence and cultural sophistication of the era. The baths were not only functional but also served as centers for socializing, exercise, and leisure, reflecting Roman ideals of public health and communal well-being.

Excavations at Leptis Magna have revealed the extensive remains of the Hadrianic Baths, providing insights into Roman bathing practices and architectural techniques. These discoveries highlight the city's prosperity under Roman rule and its integration into the broader Mediterranean world, where such public amenities were essential elements of urban life and civic identity.

circa 160 CE

Arch of Marcus Aurelius
The Arch of Marcus Aurelius in Leptis Magna was a monumental structure built to honor and commemorate the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius (reigned 161-180 CE), known for his military campaigns and philosophical writings.

Located within the city, the arch followed the traditional Roman triumphal arch design, featuring a central passageway flanked by columns or pilasters adorned with elaborate reliefs and sculptures. These decorations typically depicted scenes of Marcus Aurelius's military victories, symbolic representations of Roman virtues, and divine associations with gods and goddesses.

Constructed during Marcus Aurelius's reign or shortly thereafter, the arch served not only as a symbol of imperial power but also as a propaganda tool, celebrating the emperor's achievements and reinforcing loyalty to Roman authority in Leptis Magna and the broader region of North Africa.

circa 162 CE

Circus Maximus
To the southeast of their city, the people of Lepcis Magna constructed their circus or hippodrome (modeled after the Circus Maximus in Rome), a vast space measuring approximately 100 x 450 meters. This site, located on a flat area near the beach not far from the Amphitheater, likely had a history of hosting chariot races, with seating for spectators carved into the rocky terrain. In 162 CE, starting gates (carceres) were added, indicating further development of the venue.

Around the same time, new stands were erected along the sea, likely replacing an earlier wooden structure. These stands accommodated between 20,000 to 25,000 spectators across eleven tiers of official seating. From the higher vantage point of the Amphitheater, one could also glimpse the circus.

On the spina (central dividing barrier), five water basins with fountains were installed, a decorative feature reminiscent of Rome's Circus Maximus. This included the "dolphins" on the corners, which indicated the number of laps remaining for the charioteers.

The mosaic found at Villa Selene, likely depicting the hippodrome of Lepcis Magna, illustrates the scene with starting boxes prominently displayed, doors open, signifying the start of a race. Numerous chariots and horses fill the track, while the spina is adorned with various monuments. The Circus of Lepcis Magna stands out as one of the largest known examples.

Between the starting gates and the Amphitheater lies a large depression in the ground, depicted in the final two photos. Initially possibly a natural depression or later utilized as a quarry, it eventually served as a gathering place for charioteers before races in the Circus. Additionally, it was used to prepare wild animals or gladiators for the spectacles held in the Amphitheater.

circa 193-211 CE

Cardo Inferiore I (Colonnaded Street)
The cardo inferiore I, is the colonnaded street in the eastern part of the archaeological site of ancient Lepcis Magna. It spanned a length of approximately 400 meters, starting at the northern arch of the grand nymphaeum. The colonnaded street of Leptis Magna ran parallel and directly adjacent to the Wadi Lebda. The colonnaded street at Leptis Magna, also known as the street of the Severan Forum, was constructed during the reign of the Roman emperor Septimius Severus, who ruled from 193 to 211 CE.

This grand avenue was part of a series of building projects initiated by Severus to enhance his hometown, reflecting the architectural and urban development characteristic of the Severan period. The street was lined with impressive columns and adorned with statues and other decorative elements, serving as a prominent feature of the city's landscape.

circa 200 CE

Severan Basilica
The Severan Basilica of Leptis Magna is one of the most impressive and significant structures in the ancient city, constructed during the reign of emperor Septimius Severus, who ruled from 193 to 211 CE. Born in Leptis Magna, Septimius Severus undertook extensive building projects in his hometown to showcase its prominence within the Roman Empire. The basilica was part of a grand architectural program initiated by Severus and completed around 216 CE. It served multiple purposes, functioning as a courthouse, administrative center, and a venue for public gatherings. The structure is notable for its vast size, elaborate decoration, and architectural innovation.

The basilica was built in a classical Roman style with a large central nave flanked by aisles on either side, separated by rows of columns. The design included a raised platform or tribunal at one end where judges or officials would preside over legal proceedings. The basilica was adorned with impressive marble columns, many of which were intricately carved. The interior featured elaborate decorative elements, including friezes, statues, and mosaics, reflecting the wealth and artistic achievement of the city during this period. The construction of the Severan Basilica marked the height of Leptis Magna's prosperity and importance. It symbolized the city's status within the Roman Empire and showcased the influence and generosity of emperor Septimius Severus.

circa 200 CE

Grand Numphaeum
The Grand Nymphaeum at Leptis Magna was a monumental fountain complex constructed during the reign of emperor Septimius Severus (193–211 CE) as part of his extensive building program to enhance his native city. Strategically located near the Hadrianic Baths, it marked the termination point of the Colonnaded Street and served as a major public water distribution point, symbolizing civic wealth and Roman engineering prowess. The structure featured a large, semi-circular facade, designed to resemble a Roman theatre's scaenae frons with two tiers of columns.

The lower columns were made of imported cipolin marble from Euboea, while the upper tier utilized red granite, with niches between them likely housing statues of nymphs or imperial figures. Functionally, its thick rear concrete wall also acted as part of a dam system to manage the flow of the nearby Wadi Lebda river, and a breach in this wall during a 365 CE earthquake contributed significantly to the city's eventual decline through flooding.

circa 200 CE

Qasr Duwairat Funerary Monument
The funerary monument known as Qasr Duwayrat (also spelled as Gasr Duwayrat or Qasr ad-Duirat), located in the wider chora (hinterland) of Leptis Magna, represents a significant example of the monumental tower tombs prevalent in Roman North Africa, particularly in the Tripolitania region. Dating to the 3rd century CE, this structure is a testament to the wealth and social standing of the local Libyco-Punic elite who adopted Roman funerary architectural traditions while maintaining regional characteristics. The monument is characterized by its imposing, square plan and tall, tower-like design, which made it a highly visible landmark in the surrounding landscape.

The architectural style typically features a solid podium and an upper chamber or chambers for burials, reflecting a blend of Punic and Roman influences. This type of funerary monument underscores the complex cultural integration that occurred in the Roman provinces, where local families expressed their status and identity through grand architectural commissions in the Roman style.

circa 203 CE

Severan Forum
The Severan Forum at Leptis Magna, an integral component of the ambitious urban renewal program initiated by emperor Septimius Severus, stands as a prime example of Roman imperial architecture in a provincial setting. The complex, begun under Severus (193-211 CE) and completed by his son Caracalla in 216 CE, measures approximately 170 meters long and 80 meters wide and comprises a monumental temple, a civic basilica, and surrounding porticoes with shops (tabernae).

The forum's design is notable for its innovative use of architecture, featuring arcaded porticoes with columns made of imported green and white cipolin marble and white Pentelic marble, in a departure from the traditional use of architraves directly on columns in Roman forums. A massive, Corinthian octastyle temple dedicated to the Severan imperial family dominated one side of the forum, raised on a high podium and decorated with a relief depicting a gigantomachy. The basilica itself, inspired by the Basilica Ulpia in the Trajanic Forum of Rome, was a massive structure divided into three naves by columns of red Egyptian granite, with elaborate carvings of Dionysiac myths and the Labors of Hercules in the apses, reflecting strong eastern and African artistic influences.

The entire complex demonstrated a sophisticated blend of architectural styles and served to elevate the status of the emperor's hometown, rivaling the grandeur of the capital itself.

circa 203 CE

Arch of Septimius Severus
The Arch of Septimius Severus stands as a monumental triumphal arch within the ancient Roman city of Leptis Magna, located in present-day Libya, historically known as Roman Libya. This arch holds significance as it was commissioned by the Roman emperor Septimius Severus, who was born in Leptis Magna, to commemorate his achievements and connections to his birthplace. Erected at the intersection of the city's major thoroughfares—the north-south oriented Cardo and the east-west Decumanus Maximus—the tetrapylon structure served as a symbolic gateway marking the heart of this bustling port city of the Roman Empire in Africa.

The exact date of its construction is a matter of broad scholarly debate, but it is widely believed that the Arch of Septimius Severus was built during Severus' African tour in 203 CE. The arch's design and placement underscored the city's strategic and cultural importance, reflecting Severus' efforts to enhance Leptis Magna's stature within the empire.

Over time, both the city and its magnificent arch fell into disrepair and abandonment following invasions by barbarian forces in the late 5th century. The arch, like much of Leptis Magna, lay buried and forgotten until its rediscovery by archaeologists in 1928. Initially found in ruins and fragmented, the arch required extensive excavation and painstaking reconstruction efforts led by Giacomo Guidi. Despite its state of disrepair, the arch remains a testament to the architectural and artistic achievements of the Roman era in North Africa.

Later, during the reign of emperor Justinian, remnants of the arch were repurposed for use in his grand basilica, underscoring the enduring legacy and adaptive reuse of architectural elements from ancient Roman structures like the Arch of Septimius Severus at Leptis Magna.

circa 200-450 CE

Lighthouse Remains
The lighthouse of the ancient city of Lapcis was a vital component of the city's artificial harbor infrastructure, situated at the easternmost point of the northern protective pier. It was constructed during the reign of emperor Septimius Severus (193–211 CE), a period of significant expansion and monumentalization of the city's port. Archaeological evidence, in conjunction with depictions on reliefs from the Arch of Septimius Severus, suggests the structure was a multi-story tower, likely with three levels of high arches and an estimated height of around 35 meters.

The remains of an internal staircase are still visible within the extant base of the tower. The lighthouse's design and function as a beacon for ships navigating the Mediterranean underscore the sophisticated engineering of Roman maritime infrastructure and the port's critical role as a bustling hub for trade, especially in grain and other commodities from the fertile chora. The structure, now in ruins due to natural processes like silting of the harbor and abandonment after Late Antiquity, stands as a testament to the city's peak prosperity and its integration into the vast commercial networks of the Roman Empire.

circa 550 CE

Byzantine Gate
The structure identified as the "Byzantine Gate" at Leptis Magna is actually a Roman honorific arch that was repurposed and incorporated into the city's reduced defensive walls during the Byzantine reoccupation under emperor Justinian in the 6th century CE. Procopius, a Byzantine historian, recorded that the emperor built a new, smaller circuit wall for the city, as its former size made it difficult to defend and vulnerable to sand encroachment. The gate replaced an earlier arch, and an inscription found on it indicates the original structure was dedicated to emperor Vespasian and his son Titus in 77 or 78 CE. This adaptive reuse of a grand Roman monument into a functional defensive gateway highlights the diminished circumstances and strategic priorities of Leptis Magna during Late Antiquity, reflecting a significant reduction in the city's size and prominence following periods of Vandal invasion and economic decline.

circa 550 CE

Remains of Eastern Byzantine Wall
The remains of the Eastern Byzantine Wall at Leptis Magna are part of a reduced defensive circuit constructed during the reign of emperor Justinian in the 6th century CE, following the Vandal occupation and subsequent Byzantine re-conquest of North Africa.

The construction of this smaller wall, described by the historian Procopius, was a strategic response to the city's diminished population and vulnerability to Berber raids and sand encroachment, as the expansive original Roman city was no longer defensible. Characteristically, the wall was built rapidly using extensive amounts of spolia—reused architectural elements, including decommissioned building blocks, columns, and statuary from earlier Roman structures within the abandoned outer areas of the city. The wall's construction typically featured an inner and outer face of these salvaged, often well-selected and coursed, stone blocks with a rubble fill between them. The presence and nature of these remains provide direct archaeological evidence for the city's significant decline during Late Antiquity, illustrating a transition from the opulent Roman provincial capital to a smaller, fortified Byzantine outpost focused on defense and survival.

circa 550 CE

Byzantine Church
During the Byzantine reoccupation of Leptis Magna in the 6th century CE under emperor Justinian, several churches were established, with the most notable being the conversion of the Severan Basilica into a Christian place of worship. This transformation involved repurposing the grand Roman civic structure into a three-aisled basilica church dedicated to Mary, the Mother of God. The original Severan pavement of Proconnesian marble slabs was stripped and the floor level raised with a deliberate fill, while an elevated chancel area and a pulpit, reportedly crafted from a reused Roman capital, were installed to suit Christian liturgy.

The church also incorporated a cruciform baptistery, and notably, several burials were found within its precincts, an exception to traditional Roman law against intramural burials made possible by the city's reduced and newly fortified area. The use of spolia, such as columns of imported cipolin marble, from abandoned Roman temples and buildings, highlights the pragmatic approach to construction in Late Antiquity and reflects the city's diminished circumstances compared to its imperial zenith. This architectural adaptation provides significant archaeological evidence for the Christianization of the urban landscape and the strategic priorities of the Byzantine administration in North Africa.

circa 550 CE

Byzantine Period Fortification Tower

circa

Western Gate
The Western Gate, also identified in some scholarship as the Porta Oea, has been recognized primarily for its role in the city's late Roman and Byzantine defensive systems. Initially, the monument functioned not merely as a utilitarian gate, but as a triumphal or honorific arch within the urban fabric, a common practice in Roman provincial towns where such structures often marked the caput viae (road head).

Archaeological analysis, particularly recent surveys, suggests the structure was originally a Roman arch, specifically linked to the Severan period's major building programs, which transformed Leptis Magna into a showcase of imperial power. The structure marked a transition point from the properly urbanized area along the coast road (the Decumanus Maximus) to the suburban districts. The arch's later incorporation into the reduced city walls during the 6th-century Byzantine reoccupation under Justinian highlights its adaptive reuse in a period of decline and increased security concerns, a significant departure from its original Roman function as a symbol of civic pride and imperial grandeur.

circa

Temple of Hercules
The Temple of Hercules was a significant sanctuary dedicated to the god, who, along with Liber Pater, was a primary Punic-era patron deity of the city (equated with the Punic god Melqart). This temple was situated in the Forum Vetus (Old Forum) on a high podium and incorporated columns in the Corinthian order. The cella structure included a series of internal crypts surrounding a solid core. The site of the temple is also associated with the discovery of elaborate column capitals decorated with carvings related to Dionysiac myths and the Labors of Hercules, which were later reused in the Severan Basilica, highlighting a continuity of local civic and religious identity despite the change in ruling powers and artistic styles. This adaptive reuse of architectural elements (spolia) in later constructions is a key characteristic of Leptis Magna's material history, particularly during its monumental expansion under the native-born emperor Septimius Severus in the early 3rd century CE.