Imperial Pavilion of Domus Aurea on the Oppian Hill

By the Editors of the Madain Project

The Imperial Pavilion of Domus Aurea on the Oppian Hill, literally meaning the Golden House, was the large palatial complex located on the Oppian Hill, which formed the entertainment or reception wing of the much larger Domus Aurea Complex. The building, occupying most of the Oppian Hill (part of the Esquiline Hill), was constructed in a "pavilion" style, which most likely extended or replaced emperor Nero's earlier Domus Transitoria.

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Overview

The construction on the mega project began after the great fire of 64 CE and was nearly completed just before Nero's death in 68 CE, a remarkably short time for such an enormous project. Nero is said to have taken great interest in every detail of the project, according to historian Tacitus, and oversaw the engineer-architects, Celer and Severus, who were also responsible for the attempted navigable canal with which Nero hoped to link Misenum with Lake Avernus.

Construction began after the great fire of 64 and was nearly completed before Nero's death in 68, a remarkably short time for such an enormous project. Nero took great interest in every detail of the project, according to Tacitus, and oversaw the engineer-architects, Celer and Severus, who were also responsible for the attempted navigable canal with which Nero hoped to link Misenum with Lake Avernus.

Emperor Marcus Salvius Otho and possibly Titus Caesar Vespasianus allotted money to finish at least the structure on the Oppian Hill; this continued to be inhabited, notably by emperor Vitellius in 69 but only after falling ill, until it was destroyed in a fire under Trajan in 104.

A symbol of decadence that caused severe embarrassment to Nero's successors, the Domus Aurea was stripped of its marble, jewels, and ivory within a decade. Although the Oppian villa continued to be inhabited for some years, soon after Nero's death other parts of the palace and grounds, encompassing 2.6 square kilometers (approx. 1 square mile), were filled with earth and built over: the Baths of Titus were already being built on part of the site, probably the private baths, in 79 CE. On the site of the lake, in the middle of the palace grounds, Vespasian built the Flavian Amphitheatre, which could be flooded at will, with the Colossus of Nero beside it. The Baths of Trajan, and the Temple of Venus and Roma were also built on the site. Within 40 years, the palace was obliterated. Paradoxically, this ensured the wall paintings' survival by protecting them from moisture.

The rediscovery of the Domus Aurea in the late 15th century CE began when a young Roman, while exploring a cleft in the Esquiline hill side, stumbled upon a grotto filled with vibrant frescoes. These Fourth Style paintings, initially hidden underground, quickly captured the attention of Rome's burgeoning Renaissance artists. Artists such as Raphael and Michelangelo descended into the grotto to study the paintings, finding in them a profound connection to the classical world. The grotesque (grotteschi) decorations sparked an intense fascination, significantly influencing Renaissance art. This was evidenced in the works of renowned artists, including Domenico Ghirlandaio, Martin van Heemskerck, and Filippino Lippi, whose signatures adorned the frescoes. Some frescoes were removed in 1668 cE, with one surviving example now housed in the Ashmolean Museum. The discovery had a lasting impact on art history, with the influence of the frescoes evident in works like Raphael's decoration of the Vatican loggias and later in Neoclassicism. The effect of these rediscovered ancient designs on Renaissance and later artists cemented their importance in the development of Western art.

Plan

circa 64-68 CE

The grand pavilion on the Oppian Hill was oriented east-west. The Golden House building (pavilion) on the Oppian Hill was extended from Nero's earlier Domus Transitoria and designed mainly as a place of entertainment, as shown by the presence of 300 rooms with few sleeping quarters. The building plan is divided into two parts: the western one is simple and classic in design, characterised by perpendicular axes and built around a large rectangular courtyard, which opened towards the valley and the lake. The eastern part is of a much richer design with two of the principal dining rooms flanking an octagonal court, surmounted by a dome with a giant central oculus to let in light. It was an early use of Roman concrete construction. It also had an upper floor on the same level as the hill against which it rested (to the north). The surviving parts of this floor are preserved only to a height of 30/60 cm, and the thickness of the walls was also reduced to 40/50 cm so that it was a much less monumental body than the lower floor.

Architecture

circa 64-68 CE

Decorations
Rooms sheathed in dazzling polished white marble with paintings above had richly varied floor plans, complete with niches and exedras that concentrated or dispersed the daylight. There were pools in the floors and fountains splashing in the corridors.

During renovation works at the end of 2018, experts discovered a barrel-vaulted room (room 72) richly decorated with panthers, centaurs, the god Pan, and a sphinx, believed to have been built between 65 and 68 CE. The frescoes were of similar style to those in the cryptoporticus (room 92) which allows attribution to the so-called "A" workshop.

The extensive gold leaf that gave the palace its name was not the only extravagant element of its decor: stuccoed ceilings were faced with semi-precious stones and ivory veneers, while the walls were frescoed, coordinating the decoration into different themes in each major group of rooms. Pliny the Elder watched it being built and mentions it in his Naturalis Historia.

One innovation was destined to have an enormous influence on the art of the future: Nero placed mosaics, previously restricted to floors and gardens, in the vaulted ceilings. Only fragments have survived, but that technique was to be copied extensively, eventually ending up as a fundamental feature of Christian art: the apse mosaics that decorate so many churches in Rome, Ravenna, Sicily, and Constantinople.

Frescoes covered every surface that was not more richly finished. The main artist was Famulus (or Fabulus, or Amulius according to some sources). Fresco technique, working on damp plaster, demands a speedy and sure touch: Famulus and assistants from his studio covered a spectacular amount of wall area with frescoes. Pliny, in his Natural History, recounts how Famulus went for only a few hours each day to the Golden House, to work while the light was best. He wrote:

More recently, lived Amulius, a grave and serious personage, but a painter in the florid style. By this artist there was a Minerva, which had the appearance of always looking at the spectators, from whatever point it was viewed. He only painted a few hours each day, and then with the greatest gravity, for he always kept the toga on, even when in the midst of his implements. The Golden Palace of Nero was the prison-house of this artist's productions, and hence it is that there are so few of them to be seen elsewhere.

circa 64-68 CE

Octagonal Room
The octagonal room was a masterpiece of Roman architecture and overlooked a xystus a track to watch gymnastic competitions, and the immense park. The lower part of the dome follows a pattern of octagonal segments (like Brunelleschi 's dome of S. Maria del Fiore in Florence), while the upper part assumes a circular shape.

This domed room was a triclinium, where the emperor manifested himself as divine, through the effects of light that the dome filtered, assimilating himself to the god Apollo. It was built on the model of the cenatio praecipua rotunda (dining room whose ceiling constantly revolved like the heavens) which Carandini and Fraioli position in the pavilion. The ceiling of the octagonal hall could probably rotate by means of a mechanism created by Celer and Severus and similar to a millstone which, hooked to the uncovered tracks along the edge of the central opening, was moved by slaves. Perfume was sprayed and rose petals were dropped on the assembled diners. According to some accounts, perhaps embellished by Nero's political enemies, on one occasion such quantities of rose petals were dropped that one unlucky guest was asphyxiated (a similar story is told of the emperor Elagabalus).

On the sides of the octagonal room there were two apartments: the "room of Achilles in Skyros" and the "room of Hector and Andromache", judged from their paintings. The side spaces served both as passageways and as buttress elements for the dome; These spaces were accessed through large openings surmounted by brick courses. This was probably one of the models from which the famous dome of the Pantheon drew inspiration: it is in fact an early example of the use of the cementitious technique, which had been developed by the Romans from the second century BC for the development of large and articulated interior spaces.

circa 64-68 CE

Nymphaeum of Polyphemus
The Nymphaeum of Polyphemus Ninfeo di Polifemo is a notable feature within Emperor Nero's Domus Aurea in Rome. This intimate, barrel-vaulted grotto served as an alternative dining space to the grand Octagonal Room. The interior was adorned with marble-clad walls and floors, while the corners and lunette were embellished with seashells. A cascading water feature descended over a staircase on the back wall, feeding into a central horseshoe-shaped basin, creating a sparkling effect.

The ceiling of the nymphaeum featured an octagonal mosaic depicting Ulysses offering a wine cup to Polyphemus, the one-eyed Cyclops from Homer's Odyssey. This central medallion was surrounded by additional decorative elements, contributing to the room's elaborate aesthetic.

circa 64-68 CE

Corridor of the Eagles
Corridoio delle aquile

circa 64-68 CE

Chamber of Owls
Sala delle Civette

circa 64-68 CE

Chamber of the Achilles in Skyros
The "Hall of Achilles in Skyros" (Sala Achille e Sciro), situated to the west of the great octagonal hall, refers to a decorative scene found in ancient Roman art, particularly in the Domus Aurea (Nero's Golden House), depicting the Greek myth where Achilles is disguised as a woman among the daughters of King Lycomedes on the island of Skyros, thus hiding from the Trojan War; the "hall" represents a room decorated with this imagery, often showcasing the moment Odysseus discovers Achilles' true identity by presenting him with weapons, revealing his warrior nature despite his disguise.

circa 64-68 CE

Chamber of the Black Vault
Sala Volta Nera

circa 64-68 CE

Chamber of the Yellow Vault
Sala Volta Gialla

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