The Colosseum (Colosseo) is an oval amphitheatre in the centre of the city of Rome, Italy, just east of the Roman Forum. It is the largest ancient amphitheatre ever built, and is still the largest standing amphitheatre in the world today, despite its age.
Construction began under the emperor Vespasian (reigned circa 69–79 CE) in 72 CE and was completed in 80 CE under his successor and heir, Titus (reigned 79–81 CE). Further modifications were made during the reign of Domitian (reigned 81–96 CE).
The three emperors that were patrons of the work are known as the Flavian dynasty, and the amphitheatre was named the Flavian Amphitheatre (Latin: Amphitheatrum Flavium; Italian: Anfiteatro Flavio by later classicists and archaeologists for its association with their family name (Flavius).
The Colosseum was used to host gladiatorial shows as well as a variety of other events. The shows, called munera, were always given by private individuals rather than the state. They had a strong religious element but were also demonstrations of power and family prestige, and were immensely popular with the population. Another popular type of show was the animal hunt, or venatio.
circa 70 CE- Modern Period
Flavian Period (Construction and Early Use)
The construction of the Colosseum, officially known as the Amphitheatrum Flavium, began under Emperor Vespasian around 70–72 CE and was completed by his son, emperor Titus, in 80 CE. It was erected on the site of artificial lake of Nero's Domus Aurea, symbolically reclaiming the area for public use and distancing the Flavian dynasty from the excesses of Nero. This monumental amphitheater, designed to host gladiatorial games, animal hunts (enationes), and public spectacles, was the largest of its kind in the Roman world, with an estimated capacity of 50,000 to 80,000 spectators. Its elliptical structure was supported by travertine blocks and reinforced by Roman concrete, showcasing Roman engineering excellence. The exterior featured three tiers of arches adorned with Tuscan, Ionic, and Corinthian columns, and a fourth attic level. An elaborate system of corridors, staircases, and the hypogeum, a network of underground chambers, facilitated the smooth operation of the games. The Colosseum was inaugurated with 100 days of games, during which thousands of animals and gladiators were killed, establishing its role as the epicenter of Roman public entertainment and imperial propaganda.
Imperial Period (1st–4th Centuries CE)
During the height of the Roman Empire, the Colosseum became the focal point of civic life, hosting elaborate events funded by emperors to reinforce their popularity and underscore the glory of Rome. Successive emperors, including Domitian, added features to the structure, such as the hypogeum, a subterranean complex that enabled intricate stagecraft with trapdoors and lifts. The events held in the arena served not only as entertainment but also as a means of demonstrating Roman values such as courage, endurance, and the supremacy of the Empire. During this period, the Colosseum also functioned as a venue for executions, where condemned criminals were killed in elaborate reenactments of mythological or historical battles. By the 3rd century CE, economic challenges and shifts in imperial priorities reduced the frequency and scale of events. However, the Colosseum remained a potent symbol of Rome's enduring grandeur.
Late Antiquity (4th–6th Centuries CE)
In the 4th century CE, the Christianization of the Roman Empire brought significant changes to the Colosseum's function. With Emperor Constantine's Edict of Milan in 313 CE, Christian practices increasingly replaced pagan rituals, and the gladiatorial games began to decline. The last recorded games occurred during the reign of Honorius in 404 CE, after which the Colosseum was gradually repurposed. It is believed that by the late 5th century, parts of the amphitheater were used as a cemetery and workshops, reflecting its diminished role in public life. Natural disasters, such as the earthquake of 443 CE, caused significant structural damage. Despite these changes, the Colosseum remained an important landmark, though its function had shifted from a grand venue for games to a more utilitarian space within the declining Western Roman Empire.
Medieval Period (6th–14th Centuries CE)
The Colosseum entered a period of decline in the medieval era, becoming a quarry for building materials and a fortified residence. By the 6th century CE, the structure was partially repurposed as a Christian church, with small chapels established within its walls. During the 12th century, the Frangipani family fortified the amphitheater, turning it into a stronghold, a common fate for ancient Roman structures during the period of political fragmentation in Italy. The Colosseum's stone, particularly its travertine, became a source for new constructions in Rome, including parts of St. Peter's Basilica. Despite its degradation, the amphitheater retained symbolic significance, being associated with Christian martyrdom—a connection now largely debunked by scholars.
Renaissance and Baroque Periods (15th–18th Centuries CE)
During the Renaissance, the Colosseum became an object of renewed interest for antiquarians and architects. Artists such as Giovanni Battista Piranesi documented its ruins in meticulous engravings, emphasizing its monumental scale and architectural ingenuity. However, the quarrying of its stone continued into the 17th century, often sanctioned by the papacy to supply materials for new projects. Pope Benedict XIV, in 1749, sought to halt the destruction by declaring the Colosseum a sacred site in honor of Christian martyrs, although historical evidence of large-scale martyrdom within the arena remains sparse. This decree marked a turning point in the preservation of the Colosseum, transitioning it from a resource for construction to an artifact of historical and spiritual significance.
Modern Period (19th–21st Centuries CE)
The modern era has witnessed extensive efforts to conserve and restore the Colosseum as a symbol of Roman heritage and ingenuity. Archaeological excavations began in the 19th century under Pope Pius VII, uncovering the hypogeum and stabilizing the structure. Restoration continued through the 20th century, with significant work focused on mitigating damage from pollution, earthquakes, and time. In the 21st century, the Colosseum remains one of the most visited landmarks in the world, drawing millions of tourists annually. Ongoing research and conservation aim to preserve its structural integrity while enhancing our understanding of its history and use. It stands today as both a testament to Roman engineering and a symbol of the cultural transitions that have shaped its legacy over two millennia.
circa 70-80 CE
Exterior
Unlike earlier Greek theatres that were built into hillsides, the Colosseum is an entirely free-standing structure. It derives its basic exterior and interior architecture from that of two Roman theatres back to back, in an elliptical plan. The height of the outer wall is 48 meters (157 feet / 165 Roman feet). The outer wall is estimated to have required over 100,000 cubic metres (3.5 million cubic feet) of travertine stone which were set without mortar; they were held together by 300 tons of iron clamps. However, it has suffered extensive damage over the centuries, with large segments having collapsed following earthquakes. The north side of the perimeter wall is still standing. The surviving part of the outer wall's monumental façade comprises three stories of superimposed arcades surmounted by a podium on which stands a tall attic, both of which are pierced by windows interspersed at regular intervals.
circa 70-80 CE
Interior
The interior of the Colosseum is majorly composed of three parts, the hypogeum, the arena floor and the cavea, which is further composed of several more integrated structures. The central arena, where the games were actually carried out, is an oval 87 meters (287 feet) long and 55 meters (180 feet) wide, surrounded by a wall 5 meters (15 feet) high, above which rose tiers of seating. It comprised a wooden floor covered by sand (the Latin word for sand is harena or arena), covering an elaborate underground structure called the hypogeum (literally meaning "underground"). The hypogeum was not part of the original construction but was ordered to be built by Emperor Domitian. Little now remains of the original arena floor, but the hypogeum is still clearly visible.
circa 70-80 CE
The Colosseum and its activities supported a substantial industry in the area and required a large number of supporting structures to facilitate the games. In addition to the amphitheatre itself, many other buildings nearby were linked to the games.
Immediately to the east lie the remains of the Ludus Magnus, a monumental training school for gladiators. This was connected to the Colosseum by an underground passage, to allow easy access for the gladiators. The Ludus Magnus had its own miniature training arena, which was itself a popular attraction for Roman spectators. Other training schools were in the same area, including the Ludus Matutinus (Morning School), where fighters of animals were trained, plus the Dacian and Gallic Schools.
Also nearby were the Armamentarium, comprising an armory to store weapons; the Summum Choragium, where machinery was stored; the Sanitarium, which had facilities to treat wounded gladiators; and the Spoliarium, where bodies of dead gladiators were stripped of their armor and disposed of.
Around the perimeter of the Colosseum, at a distance of 18 meters (59 feet) from the perimeter, was a series of tall stone posts (inspect), with five remaining on the eastern side. Various explanations have been advanced for their presence; they may have been a religious boundary, or an outer boundary for ticket checks, or an anchor for the velarium or awning.
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