The Temple of Concord in the Roman Forum was one of the most symbolically charged religious structures of ancient Rome, dedicated to Concordia, the goddess of harmony and unity. Its origins date back to the early Republican period (circa 509-264 BCE), traditionally linked to efforts at reconciliation between the patricians and plebeians. Over the centuries, the temple underwent multiple reconstructions, most notably under Lucius Opimius in 121 BCE, Tiberius in 7 BCE, and under Augustus sometime around 10 CE reflecting Rome's evolving political landscape. Serving as a venue for Senate meetings, the temple also housed an extensive collection of Greek art and treasures. Though little remains today beyond its platform, the site continues to be a focal point for understanding Rome's architectural and ideological history.

The "temple" in the ancient city of Rome refers to a series of shrines or temples erected at the western end of the Roman Forum that were dedicated to the Roman goddess Concordia.

circa 44 BCE

Origins and the First Temple of Concord (circa 367 BCE)
One tradition attributes the foundation of the first Temple of Concord to a vow made by Marcus Furius Camillus in 367 BCE. This occurred during the political struggle surrounding the Lex Licinia Sextia, a law proposed by the tribunes Gaius Licinius Stolo and Lucius Sextius Lateranus, which granted plebeians access to the consulship. The patrician class resisted this reform, leading to years of political deadlock in which no magistrates were elected. Camillus, appointed as dictator to deal with an invasion of the Gauls, found himself influenced by his fellow patrician Marcus Fabius Ambustus—father-in-law to Stolo. In an effort to resolve the crisis and restore unity between patricians and plebeians, Camillus pledged to build a temple dedicated to Concordia, the divine personification of harmony and reconciliation in Rome.

Dedication by Gnaeus Flavius (304 BCE)
While Camillus' vow is not recorded by Livy, another version of events describes the dedication of a Temple of Concord in 304 BCE by the aedile Gnaeus Flavius. Although the earliest temple is believed to have been vowed by Marcus Furius Camillus in 367 BCE, but it has been theorized that it may not have been built until 218 BCE by L. Manlius. This temple was located in the Vulcanal, a precinct sacred to Vulcan at the western end of the Forum. Flavius' actions stirred controversy, as he dedicated the temple without consulting the Senate, a significant breach of tradition. His low social standing further fueled the outrage—Flavius was a plebeian, the son of a freedman, and had previously worked as a scribe for Appius Claudius Caecus. The Pontifex Maximus, Rome's chief priest, was forced to instruct Flavius on the proper religious formulas for temple dedication. Cicero and Pliny offer conflicting accounts, suggesting that Flavius may still have been a scribe rather than an aedile at the time of the dedication. In response to his actions, a law was promptly enacted, prohibiting any future temple dedications without Senate approval or the authorization of a majority of the plebeian tribunes.

Third Temple of Concord (217–216 BCE)
Yet another Temple of Concord was initiated in 217 BCE, during the early years of the Second Punic War. The duumviri Marcus Pupius and Caeso Quinctius Flamininus began its construction to fulfill a vow made by the praetor Lucius Manlius Vulso in 218 BCE. Vulso had sworn the vow after successfully escaping an attack by the Gauls, though Livy hints at internal discord within his ranks, possibly a mutiny. The temple was swiftly completed and dedicated the following year by the duumviri Marcus and Gaius Atilius. In 211 BCE, during the war, the temple's roof was struck by lightning, damaging a statue of Victoria that had been placed atop the structure. Subsequent prodigies were recorded in the Concordiae neighborhood, where the temple stood, in both 183 BCE and 181 BCE.

Reconstruction by Lucius Opimius (121 BCE)
The assassination of Gaius Gracchus in 121 BCE marked one of the most turbulent periods in Roman politics, exacerbating the divide between the aristocracy and the populares faction. In the immediate aftermath, the Senate, under the leadership of the consul Lucius Opimius, ordered a complete reconstruction of the Temple of Concord. This initiative was widely viewed as a cynical attempt to justify the brutal suppression of Gracchus and his supporters under the guise of a symbolic gesture toward reconciliation. From this point onward, the temple became an important meeting place for the Senate and religious bodies like the Arval Brethren. It hosted two particularly significant Senate sessions: one in which Cicero delivered his Fourth Catilinarian Oration, and another in which Sejanus, the powerful but ultimately doomed confidant of Emperor Tiberius, was condemned to death.

Tiberian Restoration and the Temple of Concordia Augusta (7 BCE- 10 CE)
After years of gradual neglect, the future emperor Tiberius undertook a comprehensive restoration of the temple in 7 BCE. The renovation project spanned over a decade, culminating in the rededication of the temple on January 16, 10 CE, under the new name Aedes Concordiae Augustae—the Temple of Concordia of Augustus. This newly restored temple was notable not only for its religious significance but also for its function as a museum housing a remarkable collection of Greek artworks. Pliny the Elder provides detailed descriptions of these treasures, which included a statue of Hestia, several bronze sculptural groups, and panel paintings by celebrated Greek artists such as Zeuxis, Nikias, and Theoros. At the time it was one of a number of religious and cultic structures dedicated to Concordia by Octavian Augustus, including an altar in the Forum Boarium.

Later Use and Decline of the Temple
During the imperial era, the temple continued to serve as a political and ceremonial space. Some sources suggest that it may have been the venue for the Senate's deliberations following the deaths of Gordian I and Gordian II, when Pupienus and Balbinus were elected joint emperors in 238 CE. The temple also appears to have undergone another restoration following a fire in 284 CE, though details remain uncertain. With the rise of Christianity and the increasing suppression of pagan practices in the late fourth century CE, the temple likely ceased to function as an active place of worship. However, unlike many other pagan structures, it was not immediately dismantled. By the eighth century CE, the temple was in a severe state of disrepair, reportedly on the verge of collapse.

Final Destruction (circa 1450)
By the 15th century CE, the ruins of the Temple of Concord were finally razed. Around 1450 CE, the remaining stone was repurposed in a lime kiln to extract marble for new construction projects. This marked the final erasure of one of Rome's most politically significant religious sites, leaving behind only scattered remnants of its once-grand legacy.

circa 44 BCE

Republican-Era Temple
The Temple of Concord, originally constructed by Lucius Opimius in 121 BCE following the violent suppression of Gaius Gracchus and his supporters, featured a traditional Roman temple design with a rectangular podium measuring 40.8 meters by 30 meters. The temple likely followed a hexastyle or octastyle (six or eight-columned) plan, supported by a raised platform that emphasized its prominence in the Roman Forum. The porch of the temple contained eight Corinthian columns, composed of travertine drums covered in stucco, a common technique in Republican architecture to give the appearance of higher-quality stone while using locally available materials. These columns would have framed the entrance, lending a sense of grandeur to the structure. The temple's architectural style reflected the political message it sought to convey—a symbol of "restored harmony" between the Roman elite and the common people, despite its origins in an act of aristocratic consolidation of power.

Temple of Concordia Augusta
Under the future emperor Tiberius, a major expansion and redesign of the temple transformed it into the Temple of Concordia Augusta, rededicated in 10 CE. Due to its position at the foot of the Capitoline Hill, directly backed against the Tabularium (Rome's central archive building), the temple had to be adapted to the constraints of the site, resulting in an unusual architectural layout. Unlike most Roman temples, which had greater depth than width, the new cella (inner chamber) was nearly twice as wide (45 meters) as it was deep (24 meters). The pronaos, or temple porch, followed a similar proportion. This created a broad, open interior space, allowing for elaborate sculptural and artistic displays. A steep flight of stairs led up to the temple’s entrance along its long side, a feature rarely seen in Roman temple design. These stairs were reportedly flanked by statues of Hercules and Mercury, representing the themes of security and prosperity.

Surviving Architectural Elements
A fragment of the marble threshold of the cella, which has survived, bears an engraved caduceus—the wand of Mercury—symbolizing peace and reconciliation. This detail underscores the temple’s intended role as a representation of civic unity under the rule of Augustus. The pediment of the temple was adorned with three statues, depicting Concordia, Pax (Peace), and Salus (Health/Safety)—or, according to another interpretation, Securitas (Security) and Fortuna (Fortune) alongside Concordia. On either side of these goddesses stood two soldiers, representing Tiberius and his brother Drusus, further linking the temple’s iconography to the imperial family. Inside the cella, a series of Corinthian columns rose from a continuous plinth that projected from the interior walls, dividing the space into distinct bays. Each of these bays contained a niche, possibly for displaying statues of deities or members of the imperial household. The capitals of these columns were uniquely decorated with pairs of leaping rams in place of the standard volutes, an uncommon design element that may have had symbolic significance related to fertility, strength, or celestial harmony.