The Mosque-Madrassa of Sultan Hassan can seen from Cairo Citadel, situated adjacent to the twentieth century CE Masjid al-Rifa'i. Its construction began 1356 CE (757 Hjijri) and is said to have completed with work ending three years later "without even a single day of idleness". The mosque was, for example, designed to include schools for all four of the Sunni schools of thought: Shafi'i, Maliki, Hanafi and Hanbali. The Mosque of Sultan Hasan is one of the largest mosques in the world, measuring 150meters in length and covering an area of 7,906 square meters.

circa 1360 CE

Mamluk Period (14th–16th centuries CE)
The mosque’s construction is especially remarkable because it took place during one of the most devastating periods in Cairo’s history. The city was repeatedly struck by the Black Plague from the mid-14th century CE onward, drastically reducing its population and disrupting public life. Despite these hardships, work on the mosque began in 1356 CE (757 Hijri) and continued for approximately three years with sustained intensity. Some evidence suggests that the project may have remained active until as late as 1363 CE, even after Sultan Hasan’s death.

Inscriptions reveal that Amir Muhammad ibn Biylik al-Muhsini oversaw the mosque’s construction. His name appears prominently alongside that of Sultan Hasan, which underscores his significant role in the project. His prominence is further attested by his administrative status; appointed governor of Cairo around 1330 CE, he also oversaw other major construction campaigns, including the renovation of the hippodrome (a long open field frequently referred to as the "hippodrome" by historians or as the Maydan, literarly meaning the "plaza" or "square") founded by al-Zahir Baybars.

One of the most substantial historical accounts is that of the chronicler al-Maqrizi, writing some sixty years later. al-Maqrizi had access to administrative records now lost to modern historians. Despite the severe shortage of manpower caused by plague outbreaks, labor does not appear to have been the primary constraint. According to al-Maqrizi, the construction cost a staggering 30,000 dirhams daily, ultimately exceeding one million dinars. This expense made it the most costly mosque constructed in medieval Cairo, forcing Sultan Hasan himself to grow concerned about its financial burden.

Funding was made possible through a range of measures, including strict fiscal policies adopted by influential amirs such as Manjaq during Hasan's minority, the confiscation of wealth from deceased Mamluk nobles who had perished during plague outbreaks—including Amir Shaykhu—and harsh taxation and extortion of subjects during Hasan’s reign.

Additionally, the scale and prestige of the project attracted specialized craftsmen from across the Mamluk domains, even as far as Anatolia. This diverse workforce contributed to the mosque’s innovative design and intricate decoration. Some of the limestone was likely sourced from the Pyramids of Giza.

Ottoman Period (16th–19th centuries CE)
Following the Ottoman conquest of Cairo in 1517 CE, the mosque continued to play a pivotal role in the city’s military and political affairs. Its strategic location near the Citadel of Cairo and its fortified structure made it an attractive vantage point during conflicts.

On multiple occasions, it served as a base for rebel amirs, allowing them to attack the Citadel itself. In 1391 CE, during Sultan Barquq’s reign, rebel amirs used the mosque’s roof as a platform to bombard the Citadel, prompting the sultan to destroy the mosque’s entrance stairs and block the main portal. In 1500 CE, Sultan Janbalat also attempted to demolish the mosque’s walls facing the Citadel to prevent future attacks, although these efforts ultimately failed due to the structure’s formidable construction.

By 1517 CE, the last Mamluk sultan, Tumanbay, sought shelter in the mosque to evade Ottoman forces, only for them to fire cannons at the structure, leaving visible damage. Even by 1660 CE, records describe its dome pocked by cannonball holes. Throughout the 18th century CE, under Ottoman rule, the mosque was periodically closed after episodes of civil unrest and subsequently reopened by order of Salim Agha in 1786 CE.

Modern Period (19th–20th centuries CE)
In the 19th century CE, structural changes further altered the mosque's profile. The northern minaret attached to the mausoleum collapsed in 1659 CE and was rebuilt in a simplified form between 1671 and 1672 CE. Around the same period, the original wooden dome of the mausoleum was replaced with the present dome, which differed in shape from its predecessor.

In 1869 CE, construction began on the monumental Mosque of ar-Rifa‘i directly adjacent to the existing mosque of Sultan Hasan. Completed in 1912 CE, its neo-Mamluk architecture and comparable scale complement the grandeur of Sultan Hasan’s mosque. Together, the two structures now define Midan Salah ad-Din (formerly Rumayla Square), creating one of the most impressive architectural ensembles in historic Cairo.

circa 1360 CE

Exterior
The mosque-madrasa complex extends approximately 150 meters in length, 68 meters in width, and reaches a height of about 36 meters. Its plan is carefully oriented toward Mecca, lying to the southeast of Cairo. Both the southwestern and northeastern elevations feature eight vertically aligned windows across four internal stories, an arrangement that accentuates the soaring verticality of the building. This rhythmic fenestration is enhanced at roof level by a substantial muqarnas cornice, which protrudes approximately 1.5 meters beyond the walls. This extensive muqarnas frieze was highly innovative in Mamluk architecture and is one of the most recognizable features of the mosque’s exterior silhouette, although it does not encircle the entire structure.

Atop this cornice, a continuous parapet of fleur-de-lis crenellations originally crowned the walls. Today these crenellations survive only around the mausoleum’s southeastern face. Along this Citadel-facing side, the windows of the mosque and the adjacent mausoleum are framed by more elaborate carved stone decoration, with some of the spandrels once inlaid with geometric tiles, possibly influenced by Anatolian design traditions. The base of the southwestern wall reveals a series of corbels projecting outward just below present street level; these likely supported the roof of a covered bazaar that ran along this façade in the Mamluk period.

Minarets
Two minarets rise along the southeastern edge of the complex, directly flanking the mausoleum chamber. The southern minaret remains in its original state and is celebrated as the tallest minaret constructed under Mamluk patronage, reaching 84 meters in height above street level at the time of completion. The northern minaret collapsed in 1659 and was rebuilt between 1671 and 1672 with more modest proportions. Historical accounts describe the lost minaret as monumental in scale and capped by two lanterns—a distinctive double-headed design that would reappear much later in the minarets of al-Ghuri at al-Azhar and Qanibay ar-Rammah.

Originally, four minarets were planned. Two additional towers were to stand over the mosque’s main portal, inspired by Ilkhanid and Anatolian Seljuk precedents such as the Gök Madrasa in Sivas or the Jameh Mosque of Yazd. This would have created an unprecedented four-minaret composition in Egypt. However, during construction in 1361 CE, one of these portal minarets collapsed, tragically killing numerous bystanders. Following this disaster, the plan was altered, leaving only the two surviving minarets adjacent to the mausoleum.

Entrance Vestibule
Passing through the main portal, one enters a richly appointed vestibule capped by a small dome ringed by muqarnas vaults. The interplay of domes and half-domes here displays clear affinities with Byzantine architectural traditions and may even reflect Armenian influence. The back wall is faced with marble panels. The central one features a white-and-red inlaid geometric pattern typical of Syrian decoration, flanked by carved marble panels. From this chamber, a passage bends into the mosque’s central courtyard.

Behind this vestibule lies a subsidiary space, probably intended for use by a physician and his students in accordance with the mosque’s original charitable foundation (waqf). Today this area survives only as a ruined trace.

Madrasas of the Four Schools
Each corner of the central courtyard contains a doorway into one of four madrasas, each dedicated to one of the four Sunni schools of law—Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi’i, and Hanbali. These madrasas included their own small courtyards and four-story student housing blocks. The two largest madrasas flank the qibla iwan and are dedicated to the Hanafi and Shafi’i schools, a practical adaptation to the irregular street plan surrounding the mosque.

Unlike most madrasas of the period, student accommodations here were intentionally separate from the mosque’s public spaces. Each madrasa contains its own small prayer iwan, decorated with stucco bands and other carved ornament comparable in style to the main mosque’s decoration.

circa 1360 CE

Main Entrance
The primary entrance portal of the mosque complex is one of the grandest examples of its kind in medieval Cairo, reaching a monumental 38 meters high and projecting outward at a 17-degree angle so that it could be clearly seen from the Citadel. Its design, especially its recessed niche with muqarnas (inspect) vaulting and richly detailed decoration, reflects stylistic borrowing from Anatolian and Mongol Ilkhanid architecture of the 13th century. The portal’s interior walls feature marble niches adorned with intricate geometric patterns, much like illuminated manuscript pages, and shallow muqarnas hoods overhead.

Inscriptions from the Qur’an embellish the interior surfaces, most notably segments of Surat al-Fath (first chapter of the Quran) in Kufic script carved into black marble panels. Higher up, a further inscription band bearing verses from Surat al-Nur (24:36-37) runs across the entire width of the portal. The decorative program, however, appears to have remained incomplete. Some stone carvings were left as preparatory outlines without being fully chiseled, providing a rare insight into Mamluk stone-carving practices. Other sections, such as the muqarnas vaulting above the doorway, also show signs of partial completion. Occasionally, the portal reveals distinctive floral chinoiserie patterns not commonly seen elsewhere in Mamluk architecture. Embedded among the carvings is also a fragmentary depiction of a Gothic-style building, probably sourced as spolia from a Crusader church.

The original bronze-clad doors were appropriated for Sultan Mu’ayyad’s mosque in the early 15th century CE and remain preserved there.

circa 1360 CE

Central Courtyard and Mosque Area
The mosque’s primary courtyard is an expansive rectangular enclosure surrounded on four sides by iwans—monumental vaulted halls—open to the center. The qibla iwan, which is the largest of the four, was historically recognized as one of the most impressive arches in the region. Contemporary chroniclers compared its scale to that of the famed Sassanian arch at Ctesiphon (Taq Kasra). Though smaller in absolute terms, the iwan’s reputation in Mamluk architecture was unparalleled.

This qibla iwan (inspect) is covered in elaborate marble decoration, with a continuous Kufic inscription of Qur’anic text set against a swirling arabesque band running the full width of the arch. Beneath it, marble revetment panels frame a marble mihrab topped by a radiating sunrise motif containing the word "Allah". The minbar to one side, constructed of marble and topped with bronze doors adorned in geometric star patterns, is a masterful example of Mamluk woodworking and metalwork. The side iwans and the surrounding courtyard areas are more restrained. A marble-paved dikka platform stands at the center of the qibla iwan, allowing Qur’an reciters to project their voices across the prayer hall.

The other three iwans and surrounding courtyard corners feature stone inscriptions and geometric mosaics, some unfinished. Architectural evidence, including an unadorned band along the top of the courtyard walls, indicates that additional decorative schemes were planned but never executed. The courtyard floor contains a marble fountain pavilion that now houses an ablutions basin. Originally conceived as a purely decorative fountain, it probably dates back to the Ottoman period and may be one of the earliest of its kind in Cairo.

circa 1360 CE

Mausoleum
The mausoleum chamber is situated directly behind the qibla wall, making it project outward into Rumayla Square toward the Citadel. This deliberate placement created a prominent visual impact from the Citadel itself. Unlike most other Mamluk religious complexes, the mausoleum lies directly in the qibla axis of the mosque, an arrangement apparently accepted without controversy at the time.

The chamber is accessed by a door adjacent to the mihrab, while a larger window on the opposite side of the qibla wall allows a view into the mausoleum. This window contains finely crafted copper doors inlaid with silver and gold, bearing geometric star motifs and elegant Thuluth inscriptions.

The walls of the mausoleum interior are covered in marble mosaic panels, and a wooden band carved with the Throne Verse encircles the chamber. Above this, a dome rises on wooden pendentives ornamented with muqarnas and painted decoration. The present dome dates to a reconstruction of 1671 after damage sustained either from the collapse of the adjacent minaret or Ottoman cannon fire from the Citadel. The original dome was more slender and bulbous, as noted by European travelers in the early 17th century CE.

Although Sultan Hasan was never interred in the tomb—his body was lost after his assassination in 1361 CE—the cenotaph was constructed in 1384 CE. His two young sons were eventually buried in the chamber instead. The interior also contains an elaborately inlaid wooden lectern intended to support one of the large, commissioned Qur’an manuscripts associated with the complex.

circa 1360 CE

Ancillary Structures
Along the northwestern edge of the complex lie further remains, including the foundations of a primary school, latrines, and a waterwheel likely used for supplying water to the royal stables at the Citadel. Excavated arched rooms may have served as shops, suggesting that commercial activity was integrated into the mosque’s endowment to support its upkeep.