Early Settlement and Protohistoric Foundations
The earliest occupation (circa 2500–1200 BCE) of the Marib region in central Yemen can be traced to the late third millennium BCE, during the protohistoric period of South Arabia. Archaeological evidence from surrounding wadis and rock art traditions indicates the presence of semi-nomadic agro-pastoralist communities, who began exploiting the seasonal floodwaters of the Wadi Dhana. Though Marib had not yet emerged as a centralized polity, the gradual development of irrigation techniques, most notably early canal systems, laid the infrastructural foundations for later state formation. This period marks the beginning of complex socio-political organization and water management in the area that would eventually become the Sabaean heartland.

Early Sabaean Kingdom and Formation of Marib
Marib’s rise (circa 1200–800 BCE) as an urban center coincided with the formation of the Sabaean kingdom in the early first millennium BCE. By the twelfth century BCE, inscriptions suggest the establishment of a centralized monarchy and a religious-political complex centered around the moon-god Almaqah. Marib emerged as the royal and religious capital, anchored by monumental constructions such as the Great Dam of Marib (Sadd Marib) and the Mahram Bilqis (sanctuary of Almaqah). The integration of hydraulic engineering, temple economy, and tribal alliances facilitated the consolidation of Sabaean authority and its expansion into surrounding territories.

Classical Sabaean Period
During this period (circa 800–400 BCE), Marib functioned as the undisputed capital of a powerful and expansionist Sabaean kingdom. The city became a hub for incense trade routes connecting South Arabia with the Levant and Mesopotamia. Monumental inscriptions from this era, such as those of Mukarrib Karib’il Watar, document military campaigns and temple dedications, reflecting a theocratic kingship supported by priesthood and aristocracy. The Great Dam was expanded during this time, enabling year-round agriculture in the Sabaean core and contributing to Marib’s prosperity and symbolic stature. Urbanization intensified, and Marib evolved into a densely built city with administrative and ceremonial quarters.

Late Sabaean Period and Rival Polities
The later Sabaean period (circa 400 BCE–100 CE) saw internal fragmentation and the emergence of rival South Arabian kingdoms such as Qataban, Hadramawt, and Himyar. While Marib remained the ceremonial and titular capital of Saba, political power fluctuated and decentralization became evident. Dynastic rivalries and shifting alliances among the major tribal confederacies weakened the Sabaean monarchy. However, Marib retained its strategic and religious importance, continuing to house major sanctuaries and serving as a reference point in inter-regional inscriptions and dedications. By the first century CE, evidence indicates Sabaean attempts to reclaim dominance under rulers such as Ilsharah Yahdib and Wahb’el Yuhan’im, with Marib still functioning as their seat of power.

Himyarite Conquest and Decline
By the early centuries CE, the Himyarite kingdom, based further south in Zafar, gradually eclipsed Saba in military and political strength. Around the late third century CE, Himyar annexed Marib and absorbed Saba into a broader South Arabian hegemony. While Marib retained some administrative and ritual functions, it lost its primacy as a political capital. The Great Dam, though still in use, suffered intermittent damage due to reduced state oversight and maintenance. The final catastrophic breach, traditionally dated to the late sixth century CE, marked the symbolic and functional decline of the city. By the time of the Aksumite invasions and eventual Islamic conquest, Marib had become a marginal town, its former grandeur preserved only in ruins and memory.

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