Cumae was one of the most significant ancient Greek colonies in the western Mediterranean and later a thriving Roman city. Founded in the 8th century BCE by settlers from Chalcis and Eretria in Euboea, it was the first Greek colony on the Italian mainland and played a crucial role in spreading Hellenic culture, trade, and political institutions throughout the region. Strategically located near the fertile plains of Campania and along key maritime routes, Cumae quickly became a wealthy and influential city, dominating the local economy through agriculture, trade, and its control over nearby settlements such as Puteoli and Misenum.

The city was also a major religious and cultural center, famed for its sanctuary of Apollo and the prophetic Cave of the Sibyl, which attracted pilgrims and leaders seeking divine guidance. Its Greek-speaking aristocracy maintained strong ties with the wider Hellenic world, and its adaptation of the Euboean alphabet influenced the development of Latin script. Cumae’s economic and political dominance led to frequent conflicts with indigenous Italic peoples, the Etruscans, and later the expanding Roman Republic.

By the Roman period, Cumae had become a peaceful and prosperous provincial city, known for its temples, baths, and role in regional administration. Its social structure evolved from a Greek oligarchy to a Roman-style municipal government, while its elite remained influential in both local and imperial politics. Despite its decline in late antiquity, Cumae retained its religious significance and continued to be inhabited until its final abandonment in the medieval period.

circa 900 BCE-

Pre-Greek Period
The earliest evidence of human habitation at Cumae dates to circa 900-850 BCE, based on excavations by Emil Stevens in 1896. More recent discoveries have revealed a Bronze Age settlement belonging to the "pit-culture" people, followed by an Iron Age occupation by Italic tribes, including the Ausones and Opici. The Greeks later referred to their land as Opicia. These indigenous groups inhabited the region before the arrival of Greek colonists, establishing settlements that were later absorbed or displaced by the expanding Greek presence.

Greek Period
Cumae was founded in the 8th century BCE by Chalcidian and Eretrian settlers from Euboea, who had previously established Pithecusae on the island of Ischia. According to ancient sources, the colony was led by the oecists Megasthenes of Chalcis and Hippocles of Cyme. The settlers chose Monte di Cuma, a hill offering natural fortification, with the sea on one side and fertile land on the other. While maintaining their maritime and commercial traditions, the Greeks expanded their territory inland, exerting control over neighboring Italic peoples. By the late 8th century BCE, Cumae had grown strong enough to send colonists to establish Zancle (modern Messina) in Sicily and Tritaea in Achaea.

Over the 7th and 6th centuries BCE, Cumae expanded its influence along the Campanian coast, dominating Puteoli and Misenum. The colony played a crucial role in spreading Greek culture in Italy, particularly through its Euboean dialect and alphabet. The latter was later adapted by the Etruscans and then re-adapted by the Romans, forming the basis of the Latin alphabet used today. Dionysius of Halicarnassus described Cumae as one of the wealthiest and most powerful cities in Italy, controlling fertile plains and important harbors. During this period, Cumae's temples were constructed using a combination of tufa, wood, and terracotta. Columns, cornices, and capitals were made from yellow tufa, while wooden beams supported the roofs and architraves. These structures were further adorned with terracotta tiles and elaborate antefix decorations to protect the overhangs. The city's defensive walls and the famous Sibyl's cave were constructed around 505 BCE, reinforcing Cumae's strategic and religious significance.

As Cumae's power grew, it faced increasing resistance from indigenous Italic tribes. In 524 BCE, the Cumaeans, under the leadership of Aristodemus, defeated a coalition of Dauni, Aurunci, and Capuan Etruscans at the First Battle of Cumae. Aristodemus' success enabled him to seize power and establish a tyranny, overthrowing the aristocracy. During his rule, he assisted the Latin city of Aricia in defeating an Etruscan army from Clusium in 505 BCE, further strengthening Cumaean influence in the region. It was likely during this period that Cumae founded Neapolis ("New City"), later Naples. Aristodemus also harbored Tarquinius Superbus, the last king of Rome, after his exile. When Tarquinius died in 495 BCE, Aristodemus confiscated Roman vessels carrying grain, claiming them as compensation for the former king's lost property. His rule ended in 490 BCE when exiled nobles returned, overthrew him, and executed him.

Cumae's Greek period continued until 474 BCE, when the Etruscans attempted to seize the city. A combined fleet from Cumae and Syracuse, under Hieron I, decisively defeated the Etruscan navy at the Battle of Cumae, weakening Etruscan influence in the region. However, the Greek control of Cumae ultimately came to an end in 421 BCE when the Oscans, allied with the Samnites, breached the city's walls, conquered it, and ravaged the countryside. Many Greek inhabitants fled to Neapolis, while the city became dominated by the Oscan-speaking Italic population.

Samnite and Early Roman Period
Following its conquest by the Oscans, Cumae lost its Greek character and came under the influence of the Samnites. The city remained under their control until the expansion of Rome into Campania. In 338 BCE, after the Latin War, Cumae was fully incorporated into the Roman sphere and was granted civitas sine suffragio, meaning its inhabitants had Roman citizenship but without voting rights. Around the same time a new temple adorned with vividly painted friezes and intricate ornamentation was erected. However, this structure was destroyed by fire only a few decades later.

Between the Punic Wars and the adoption of Latin as the region's official trading language in 180 BCE, Cumae underwent substantial infrastructural improvements. The city walls were reinforced, a large stadium was built west of the Porta Mediana, and the central baths were constructed. Extensive renovations were also carried out on the acropolis temples. From the late 2nd century BCE onward, Cumae's architecture increasingly reflected Roman influence.

During the Second Punic War (218–201 BCE), Cumae played an important role in resisting Hannibal. Despite the threat of rebellion among Campanian cities, Cumae remained loyal to Rome. The city was besieged by Hannibal's forces but withstood the attack under the leadership of Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus. After the war, Cumae became increasingly integrated into the Roman world, benefiting from Rome's expansion and prosperity.

Roman Period
Under Roman rule, Cumae flourished as part of the prosperous Campanian region. The city became a retreat for the Roman elite, with wealthy Romans building villas along the coast. The proximity of Cumae to Puteoli, Rome's main commercial port, and Misenum, the empire's principal naval base, further contributed to its economic and strategic importance. Large-scale infrastructure projects transformed the city, including the construction of roads, aqueducts, and tunnels. The Augustan period saw further urban expansion, including the construction of several prominent buildings. Among these was the basilica, or "Sullan Aula", located south of the forum and decorated with polychrome marble. The city's water supply was enhanced through an extension of the Aqua Augusta, the great Serino aqueduct, which was financed by local benefactors—the Lucceii family, who also built an elaborate nymphaeum in the forum alongside various other civic monuments. The Aqua Augusta, built around 20 BCE, provided a crucial water supply, while the Via Domitiana, completed in 95 CE, connected Cumae to the Via Appia, improving its link to Rome. In the 1st century CE, the so-called "Temple of the Giant" was erected, named after the discovery of an enormous bust of Jupiter within its ruins (now housed in the Naples Archaeological Museum). The temple's walls were later incorporated into a farmhouse.

Tunnels such as the Grotta di Cocceio, which linked Cumae to Lake Avernus, and the Crypta Romana, which connected Lake Lucrino and Lake Avernus, were major engineering achievements of the time. Public buildings, including baths and an amphitheater, were constructed, and the temples of Apollo and Demeter were restored. During this period, the city retained its religious significance, with the Sibylline Books, originally housed in the Temple of Apollo, continuing to influence Roman religious practices.

Christianity took hold in Cumae by the 2nd century CE, as evidenced in The Shepherd of Hermas, which describes a Christian community there. By the 4th century, the temple of Zeus had been converted into a Christian basilica. The city continued to be an important religious center, with its bishops participating in significant church synods.

Late Antiquity
During the 5th and 6th centuries CE, Cumae remained one of the last fortified strongholds in Campania, aside from Naples. It played a crucial role in the Gothic Wars (535–554 CE), frequently changing hands between the Byzantines and the Ostrogoths. Belisarius captured Cumae in 536 CE, but it was later retaken by Totila. Eventually, the Byzantine general Narses seized the city, discovering the Gothic treasury hidden within. Following the war, Cumae gradually declined in importance. The Lombards took control of the region in the late 6th century, and by the early medieval period, the city was largely abandoned.

Medieval Period
By the 9th century, Cumae was no longer a significant urban center. The remaining population suffered from Saracen raids, and over time, the city was completely abandoned. In 1207, Cumae was officially destroyed, and its territory was absorbed into the diocese of Aversa. The site remained uninhabited, though its ruins continued to attract occasional interest from scholars and travelers.

Modern Period
Although the ruins of Cumae began to attract antiquarian interest during the Renaissance, with early scholars identifying the remains of its temples, fortifications, and roads. However, ,ore systematic excavations began in the late 19th century, led by Emil Stevens, who uncovered evidence of pre-Greek settlements dating to the 10th century BCE. Modern archaeological research has revealed significant structures, including the Cave of the Cumaean Sibyl, Greek acropolis walls, Roman tunnels, and religious sites. Today, the site is preserved within the Parco Archeologico di Cuma, offering a glimpse into the long and complex history of one of Italy's most influential ancient cities.

circa 550 BCE

The ancient city of Cumae was divided into two primary zones: the acropolis, which occupied the elevated terrain of Monte di Cuma, and the lower city, which extended across the plains and along the coast. The acropolis, accessible only from the south, was the original nucleus of the settlement. A main road, known as the Via Sacra, traversed this elevated area, leading to the city's principal temples. The entrance to the Via Sacra was flanked by two defensive towers; one later collapsed along with part of the hill, while the other was restored during the Byzantine era and remains visible today.

The lower city began to develop significantly during the Samnite period and expanded further under Roman rule. It was protected by defensive walls, while the acropolis likely had similar fortifications during the Greek period. The existing remnants of these early Greek defenses, dating to the 6th century BCE, are preserved primarily along the southeastern side of the hill, where they may have also functioned as retaining walls for the ridge.

circa 550 BCE

Rediscovery and Excavations
Despite the abandonment of Cumae due to the formation of marshes, the memory of the ancient city endured. Over the centuries, its ruins, though neglected, attracted artists and antiquarians. With the gradual reclamation of the land, limited excavation efforts began. The first recorded excavations took place in 1606, yielding thirteen statues and two marble bas-reliefs. Among later discoveries was the large statue of Jupiter from the Masseria del Gigante, now housed in the National Archaeological Museum of Naples. However, the rise of interest in the Vesuvian cities diverted attention away from Cumae, leading to its neglect and the looting of many artifacts, which were subsequently sold to private collectors.

A more systematic approach to excavation began between 1852 and 1857 under Prince Leopoldo, the brother of Ferdinando II of the Two Sicilies. His efforts focused on the Masseria del Gigante area and several necropolises. Later, between 1878 and 1893, archaeologist Emilio Stevens received permission to excavate at Cumae, completing much of the necropolis investigation, though reports of valuable finds led to continuous looting.

A significant loss occurred between 1910 and 1922 when the draining of Lake Licola destroyed portions of the necropolis. However, archaeological interest in Cumae intensified in the early 20th century. In 1911, excavations on the acropolis uncovered the Temple of Apollo. Between 1924 and 1934, Amedeo Maiuri and Vittorio Spinazzola explored the Temple of Jupiter, the Cave of the Sibyl, and the Crypta Romana. Subsequent campaigns from 1938 to 1953 extended investigations into the lower city, revealing further details of its urban structure.

In 1992, a chance discovery during gas pipeline construction near the coast led to the identification of a temple dedicated to Isis. Two years later, in 1994, the "Kyme" project was initiated to restore and preserve the site. As part of this project, the excavation of a tholos tomb, first partially explored in 1902, was completed. In the forum area, a basilica-like structure known as the Aula Sillana was uncovered, while along the coastline, archaeologists identified three Roman maritime villas.

Since 2001, the French CNRS (Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique) has been conducting excavations outside the Porta Mediana, focusing on a necropolis dating from the 6th to the 1st century BCE. The most recent significant find occurred in June 2018, when a painted tomb from the 2nd century BCE, depicting a banquet scene, was unearthed.

Archaeological Park
The archaeological park (Parco Archeologico di Cuma) preserves the remains of one of the most significant ancient Greek colonies in Italy, showcasing a complex stratigraphy of Greek, Samnite, Roman, and medieval occupations. The park encompasses the acropolis, where the Temples of Apollo and Jupiter stand, along with the legendary Cave of the Cumaean Sibyl, a site deeply tied to Greco-Roman mythology. The lower city, developed extensively during the Roman period, contains remnants of the forum, baths, roads, and defensive structures. Visitors can also explore sections of the ancient walls, rock-cut tunnels such as the Crypta Romana, and a network of necropolises. Ongoing archaeological excavations continue to reveal new insights into the city's history, while conservation efforts aim to protect its cultural heritage.