The trade network served as a backbone for interregional exchange in antiquity, linking producer zones in Dhofar (Oman), Mahra, and Hadhramaut (Yemen) with far-flung urban economies. The system was sustained by a hierarchy of caravan cities, fortified oasis settlements, maritime ports, and redistribution hubs. Goods often transitioned between land and sea transport, and routes adapted to seasonal changes, regional conflicts, and shifts in demand. Besides incense resins, the network facilitated the movement of gold, ivory, spices, fine textiles, and exotic animals. Its durability rested on cooperation and competition among state actors, tribal confederacies, and merchant guilds.

circa 300 BCE- 200 CE

Northern Overland Link
This was the primary overland corridor from southern Arabia to the Mediterranean, active from circa 1000 BCE and reaching its height under the Nabataeans in the 3rd–1st centuries BCE. Caravans originated in Ma’rib, Shabwah, or Qanī, moving north through Najrān, Yathrib (later Medina), Khaybar, Dedan (modern Al-‘Ulā), and Hegra. From there, they passed through Petra — the Nabataean capital and key transshipment center — and exited the Arabian Peninsula via the port of Gaza. This link was marked by fortified caravanserais, toll stations, and water installations. Nabataean infrastructure was instrumental in securing this route, which handled both incense and auxiliary goods destined for Roman, Hellenistic, and earlier Levantine markets.

Western Maritime Link
A critical sea-based corridor connected the southern Arabian ports to the Red Sea and Egyptian trade centers. Starting at Qanī, Sumhuram, or Muza, vessels followed the Hadhrami and Tihama coasts northward, reaching Red Sea hubs like Berenice, Myos Hormos, and eventually Alexandria. Egyptian state interest in this route intensified under the Ptolemies and continued under Roman control. This maritime link allowed larger cargo volumes and year-round operation, bypassing the logistical constraints of desert transport. Seasonal monsoon navigation made it possible to integrate this branch with Indian Ocean commerce.

Eastern Arabian Link
This route extended from Dhofar and Mahra eastward along the coast and interior of the Arabian Peninsula, connecting to sites like Ubar/Shisr, Thāj, and eventually Gerrha (near modern Hofuf). From there, goods moved into Mesopotamia via Charax Spasinou at the head of the Persian Gulf. This corridor operated under the influence of Parthians and local Arab merchant-polities. Unlike the heavily Nabataean north, this link was more decentralized, with multiple competing towns and tribal networks managing shorter legs of the trade.

Hijazi Urban Variant
This route extended from Dhofar and Mahra eastward along the coast and interior of the Arabian Peninsula, connecting to sites like Ubar/Shisr, Thāj, and eventually Gerrha (near modern Hofuf). From there, goods moved into Mesopotamia via Charax Spasinou at the head of the Persian Gulf. This corridor operated under the influence of Parthians and local Arab merchant-polities. Unlike the heavily Nabataean north, this link was more decentralized, with multiple competing towns and tribal networks managing shorter legs of the trade.

Southwestern African Link
Extending from Aden or Muza across the Bab el-Mandeb, this maritime link connected the Arabian coast to the Horn of Africa — notably Adulis, Zeila, and the broader Aksumite domain. While primarily maritime, some overland extensions reached Nubia and the interior highlands. Aksumite control over Adulis allowed them to tap into the incense trade while also contributing African goods like ivory and gold into the network. This route grew especially significant in the late centuries BCE and early CE period, providing a southern alternative to Red Sea traffic.