Dougga, also known as Thugga or TBGG, stands as a testament to the layered history of North Africa. Situated near present-day Téboursouk in northern Tunisia, this ancient site spans an impressive 65 hectares, earning it the recognition of a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1997. As one of the best-preserved Roman small towns in North Africa, Dougga has been shielded from the encroachments of modern urbanization, allowing its monuments and rich history to remain largely intact. Its diverse cultural influences—spanning Berber, Punic, Roman, and Byzantine periods—underscore its historical significance. Among its most renowned landmarks are the Libyco-Punic Mausoleum, the Roman Capitol, the theatre, and temples dedicated to Saturn and Juno Caelestis, which together highlight the city’s architectural and cultural wealth.

The city's name, recorded in the Libyco-Berber script as TBGG, is rooted in the Berber and Punic languages. The Punic variants, tbgg and tbgʿg, likely refer to its defensible plateau location, with scholars such as Camps suggesting a derivation from the Berber root tbg ("to protect"). This nomenclature evolved through Latin as Thugga, formally renamed under Roman governance to reflect its colonial and imperial affiliations. Notably, during its Roman phase, the city was officially titled Colonia Licinia Septimia Aurelia Alexandriana Thuggensis, recognizing its prominent benefactors, including Septimius Severus and Caracalla.

Strategically located 4.6 kilometers from Téboursouk, Dougga’s elevated plateau provides commanding views of the Oued Khalled plains and natural defenses that encouraged early settlement. Its geography positioned the city at a crossroads of Berber and Punic influences, with the Fossa Regia—a boundary established after the fall of Carthage—marking its transitional role in the Roman Empire. The city’s craggy terrain necessitated architectural adaptations, making it distinct from typical Roman urban planning and earning comparisons to similarly unique sites such as Timgad.

Excavations reveal that Dougga’s urban development spanned centuries, with continuity evident in its transformation from a Numidian center to a Romanized hub. The forum, which replaced the Numidian agora at the city’s heart, reflects this evolution. Urban expansion saw the city cascade down the hill, forming what historian Hédi Slim described as “a compact mass.” Early archaeological efforts focused on public monuments, but recent digs have also shed light on private dwellings, providing a fuller picture of the city's social fabric.

circa 550 BCE- 680 CE

Pre-Roman Period
Before the Roman conquest, Dougga (then known as Thugga) was a thriving Punic settlement. The area was initially inhabited by the indigenous Berber tribes, and its strategic location made it an important site in North Africa. Dougga was significantly influenced by the Carthaginian Empire, and after its fall, it became part of the Numidian Kingdom. During this time, the city became a center of local power under Numidian rulers such as Masinissa and his successors. The early phases of Dougga’s history are marked by the establishment of indigenous sanctuaries, tombs, and religious sites, reflecting its strong Punic and Berber heritage. Archaeological findings such as the Punic-Libyan Mausoleum give insight into the cultural and religious practices of the period.

Roman Period
Following the Punic Wars, Dougga was integrated into the Roman Empire as a part of the province of Africa Proconsularis in the 1st century BCE. Under Roman rule, Dougga flourished and became one of the most prominent cities in the region. The Romans transformed the city with monumental architecture, including the construction of a forum, theaters, and temples dedicated to Roman gods such as Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. During the reign of Emperor Septimius Severus, the city saw further development, with the establishment of the Temple of Saturn and the Forum. Dougga’s Roman period is characterized by the construction of public buildings and its thriving economic activity, bolstered by agriculture, trade, and its role as a center of Roman governance in North Africa.

Byzantine Period
The decline of the Roman Empire saw Dougga, like many other North African cities, fall under Byzantine control in the 6th century CE. The Byzantine period was marked by a shift in religious and administrative structures, with Christianity gradually replacing traditional Roman paganism. The Byzantines strengthened the city’s fortifications, incorporating some of the pre-existing Roman structures, including the Capitol and theaters, into their defensive strategies. Dougga’s significance waned during this time, and it eventually became a small, less prominent settlement. Evidence of the Byzantine presence is found in the form of churches, Christian inscriptions, and modifications to Roman buildings.

Post-Byzantine Period
After the Byzantine period, Dougga fell into decline, likely due to a combination of economic stagnation and invasions.

The city’s fate was sealed as the region came under the control of various Islamic empires following the 7th century CE. However, Dougga was never completely abandoned following the Muslim invasions of the area. For a long time, Dougga remained the site of a small village populated by the descendants of the city's former inhabitants, as evidenced by the small mosque situated in the Temple of August Piety and the small bath dating to the Aghlabid period on the southern flank of the forum.

Over time, Dougga was abandoned and largely neglected, with much of its architectural heritage slowly deteriorating under the weight of neglect and natural forces. In modern times, the ruins of Dougga have been rediscovered and preserved as one of the most important archaeological sites in Tunisia, reflecting its complex history from Punic to Byzantine times.

circa 150 BCE

Temple of Saturn
The Temple of Saturn at Dougga replaced an indigenous sanctuary dedicated to Ba'al Hammon, a Punic god, and was constructed during the reign of Septimius Severus. Saturn was viewed as the successor to Ba'al Hammon and was also associated with Tanit, the goddess of fertility. The temple, located on a promontory overlooking the fertile valley of the Oued Khalled, is distinguished by its location rather than its scale, which is less grand compared to the Capitol or Temple of Juno Caelestis. Excavations revealed remains of the earlier Ba'al Hammon sanctuary, including ritual ditches (favissae) with ex-votos. The Roman temple, built using funds from a local benefactor, Lucius Octavius Victor Roscianus, includes a courtyard with a portico, three cellae, and a vestibule. It was constructed at a significant cost, likely due to the extensive earthworks needed for a solid foundation. Despite these efforts, the temple required restoration before it ultimately fell into ruin.

circa 150 BCE

Temple of Neptune

circa 150 BCE

Libyco-Punic Funerary Monument
The Mausoleum of Ateban, dating to the second century BCE, is a rare example of royal Numidian architecture. It has been compared to similar structures in Sabratha, Libya, and Anatolia. A bilingual inscription found at the site helped decode the Libyan script and revealed that the monument was dedicated to Ateban, the son of Iepmatath and Palu. The mausoleum, which was severely damaged during excavation by Sir Thomas Reade in 1842, has been partially reconstructed by French archaeologist Louis Poinssot. The tomb consists of a podium with steps leading up to a chamber, decorated with faux windows and pilasters. The second and third levels feature a temple-like colonnade and a pyramid cap, respectively.

circa 50 CE

Marketplace
The market at Dougga dates back to the mid-1st century CE. It was designed as a square, measuring 35.5 x 28 meters, surrounded by a portico and shops on two sides. The northern side featured a portico, while the southern side was occupied by an exedra, likely housing a statue of Mercury. To accommodate the natural incline of the ground, substantial earthworks were carried out, making these some of the earliest Roman constructions in the area. The alignment of these earthworks, however, suggests that they were not built over any prior foundations, and the proximity of the market to the forum should not be misconstrued as indicating a direct connection between the two. The market was nearly destroyed during the construction of the Byzantine fort but was excavated in 1918–1919.

circa 100-250 CE

Forum
The Dougga forum, though small at 924 square meters, is well-preserved in certain areas, despite significant damage from the construction of the Byzantine fort. It includes the imposing Capitol, which dominates the forum area, surrounded by porticos. The "square of the Rose of the Winds", named after a decorative element, appears more as an esplanade leading to the Temple of Mercury than a traditional open public space. The city's curia and the tribune for speeches were likely located here. Initial assumptions that Dougga's Roman settlement was founded ex nihilo were disproven with the discovery of a sanctuary dedicated to Massinissa beneath the substructures of the Capitol.

circa 163-167 CE

The "Dar Lachhab" Temple
The so-called name "Dar Lachhab" was a temple dedicated to an unknown deity. The current name belongs to the family who dwelled in the temple enclosure, before it was bought by the Tunisian state and included as part of the archaeological site. The structure has been identified, although with quite hesitation, as a bath-complex, a slave market, or a sanctuary. However, the structure has been successfully identified as a religious or cultic temple complex, due to discovery of a cultic-cella near the back of the courtyard. The courtyard was surrounded by a portico on three sides. A frieze on the portico included a long inscription situated the construction date in 163-166 CE, during the co-reign of Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus.

circa 166-167 CE

Capitol
The Capitol at Dougga, dedicated to Jupiter Optimus Maximus, Juno Regina, and Minerva Augusta, was constructed in the second century CE, likely between 166 and 167 CE. It features Corinthian columns and a well-preserved pediment depicting the deification of Emperor Antoninus Pius. The temple, built as part of a larger imperial project across North Africa, was a central structure in the city's religious and political life. Its excellent preservation, aided by its inclusion in the Byzantine fortifications, allows for a detailed understanding of its design, including the crypt discovered beneath the cella in 1955.

circa 168/169 CE

Theater
The Roman theater at Dougga, built in 168 or 169 CE, is one of the best-preserved examples in Roman Africa. With a seating capacity of 3,500, it served a city of just 5,000 inhabitants and was part of a series of imperial constructions at Dougga, adjusted to accommodate the local terrain. A dedication on the pediment and portico of the stage credits the theater's construction to P. Marcius Quadratus, who funded the building with his own money and celebrated its completion with scenic performances and athletic games. The theater is still used for performances during the Dougga Festival, and ongoing conservation efforts continue to maintain its condition.

circa 205 CE

Septimius Severus Arch
The Arch of Septimius Severus, heavily damaged over time, stands near the mausoleum on the road from Carthage to Théveste. Erected in 205 CE, it commemorates the emperor’s reign but is now largely in ruins.

circa 222-235 CE

Temple of Juno Caelestis
The Temple of Juno Caelestis, dedicated to the successor of the Punic goddess Tanit, was constructed between 222 and 235 CE. The temple is well-known for its preserved temenos, a large, crescent-shaped courtyard surrounded by a portico with 25 bays, and its Corinthian hexastyle peripteros. The temple was funded by Q. Gabinius Rufus Felix, who also contributed two silver statues of Juno Caelestis. Despite the loss of the cella, the site remains an important testament to the worship of Juno Caelestis and the influence of Roman religious practices in North Africa.

circa 222-235 CE

Arch of Alexander Severus
The Arch of Alexander Severus, constructed between 222 and 235 CE, is relatively well-preserved, though its upper sections have been lost. Located between the Capitol and the Temple of Juno Caelestis, this arch features an arcade standing 4 m tall and serves as a notable monument from the period.

circa 250 CE

Hypogeum
The Hypogeum, a half-buried structure from the third century CE, was part of the oldest necropolis in Dougga. Excavated in 1913, it was designed to house urns in wall niches. Sarcophagi discovered within suggest that the site was in use for an extended period.