In the context of Abrahamic history he Queen of Sheba appears most notably and for the first time in the Hebrew Bible (1 Kings 10; 2 Chronicles 9), where she visits Solomon in Jerusalem, impressed by his wisdom and wealth. Her account is echoed and expanded in the Qur’an, in a chapter of same name called Saba (27:22–44), where she is named Balqīs and depicted as the powerful ruler of a sun-worshipping kingdom. Ethiopian tradition, preserved in the Kebra Nagast (14th century CE), identifies her as Makeda, the ancestress of the Solomonic dynasty. While her historicity remains unconfirmed, her legend has significantly influenced political, religious, and cultural narratives across Afro-Arabian civilizations.

Queen of Sheba is plausibly linked to the Incense Trade Route, though indirectly through the broader context of her kingdom. The Sabaean kingdom controlled major stretches of the overland Incense Route from southern Arabia to the Levant between circa 1000–500 BCE. This trade in frankincense and myrrh—luxury goods also referenced in biblical texts—would have underpinned the wealth described in her visit to Solomon. While her personal role in the trade is unverified, her kingdom’s prosperity and diplomatic engagement with Israel likely reflect the economic power derived from that trans-regional network.

circa 950 BCE

Hebrew Bile
The Queen of Sheba occupies a unique place at the intersection of myth, scripture, and historical speculation. In the Hebrew Bible, her narrative appears in 1 Kings 10:1–13 and 2 Chronicles 9:1–12, where she arrives in Jerusalem bearing tribute and questions for Solomon. These accounts emphasize her recognition of Yahweh’s role in Solomon’s power and highlight the exchange of luxury goods and wisdom between the two monarchs.

In the biblical account, the Queen of Sheba is portrayed as a sovereign in her own right, presiding over a kingdom renowned for its spices, gold, and precious stones. Her visit to Solomon is framed as a diplomatic encounter motivated by the fame of his wisdom and governance. Upon testing him with hard questions—possibly riddles or theological inquiries—she is satisfied and impressed, praising the God of Israel. The narrative concludes with a reciprocal exchange of gifts, and her return to Sheba.

Islamic Sources
In Islamic tradition, primarily in Surah al-Naml (27:22–44), she is depicted as the unnamed monarch of al-Mamlakah al-Sabā’iyyah (the Kingdom of Sheba). Known in later tafsir literature as Balqīs, she is portrayed as a sun-worshipper who submits to monotheism after witnessing the miracles and wisdom of Prophet Sulaymān (Solomon). Her story in the Qur’an is emblematic of dawah (religious invitation), culminating in a political and spiritual reconciliation.

Islamic tradition similarly presents her as a powerful monarch who commands a sophisticated polity. In the Qur’anic account, the Hoopoe bird informs Solomon of her throne and her people’s idolatry. Solomon sends her a letter, prompting a deliberation among her counselors. Her eventual submission to Allah, following the miraculous transportation of her throne and her experience of Solomon’s court, marks her narrative as one of spiritual enlightenment and prophetic diplomacy.

Ethiopian Tradition
Ethiopian Christian tradition, as preserved in the Kebra Nagast (composed circa 1314 CE in Geʿez), gives her the name Makeda and integrates her into a foundational national myth. According to this text, Makeda travels to Jerusalem, bears Solomon’s son Menelik I, and through this union, establishes the Solomonic lineage in Ethiopia. The Kebra Nagast not only claims the Ark of the Covenant was brought to Aksum but also roots Ethiopia’s Christian imperial legitimacy in biblical Israelite origins.

The Ethiopian Kebra Nagast substantially expands the story. It narrates her journey to Jerusalem in search of wisdom, her conversion to the worship of the God of Israel, and her eventual seduction by Solomon. Their union produces a son, Bayna-Lehkem (later called Menelik I), who is raised in Ethiopia but later visits Solomon and returns with the Ark of the Covenant, either with or without the king’s knowledge. This myth forms the theological foundation of Ethiopia’s Christian monarchy, claiming unbroken descent from Solomon through Menelik.

These narratives, while varying in theology and emphasis, reflect longstanding cultural memories of Afro-Arabian commercial networks, courtly exchange, and dynastic ideology.

circa 950 BCE

The kingdom of Queen Sheba is generally identified with the ancient South Arabian polity of Sabaʾ, centered in what is now Yemen. The Sabaean kingdom emerged as a major power in the early first millennium BCE, with evidence from inscriptions, monumental architecture, and extensive irrigation systems such as the Maʾrib Dam. The Sabaeans spoke a South Semitic language (Sabaic), wrote in the Musnad script, and developed a complex temple economy centered on the worship of the moon god Almaqah.

Archaeological excavations at ancient Maʾrib, the presumed Sabaean capital, and nearby sites such as Sirwah and Shabwa, reveal a highly organized society with monumental temple complexes (e.g., the Temple of Awam and the Barran Temple), large-scale hydraulic engineering, and long-distance trade networks linking Arabia to the Horn of Africa, Mesopotamia, and India. These findings support the image of Sheba as a wealthy and influential power capable of dispatching diplomatic missions abroad.

Despite the richness of Sabaean epigraphy (from circa 950 BCE onward), no inscription explicitly refers to a "Queen of Sheba". However, the existence of female religious or royal figures in inscriptions (e.g., priestesses and co-rulers) suggests that elite women could have held formal authority, though possibly within a restricted or symbolic framework. One notable but debated inscription refers to Yathaʿʾamal, a possible queen or high-ranking woman, but the interpretation remains contested.

On the African side of the Red Sea, pre-Aksumite sites such as Yeha (in modern-day Tigray, Ethiopia) exhibit strong South Arabian cultural and architectural influences, including inscriptions in Sabaic and similar temple layouts. These indicate direct cultural and political contacts across the Red Sea by the early 1st millennium BCE. However, the idea that Ethiopia was the seat of the original Sheba remains speculative, largely shaped by retrospective Ethiopian traditions rather than direct archaeological evidence.

While no definitive archaeological identification of the Queen of Sheba has been made, the material culture of South Arabia and northern Ethiopia confirms the existence of polities fitting the biblical and Qur’anic descriptions in terms of wealth, complexity, and international reach. The legend likely reflects historical interactions between these regions and the Kingdom of Israel, filtered through the theological and dynastic agendas of later cultures.