The manuscript is made up of astrological, astronomical and geomantic texts compiled by Abd al-Hasan al-Isfahani, as well as a dedicated section of full-page illustrations, with each plate titled with “A discourse on….”, followed by the subject of the discourse (a folktale, a sign of the zodiac, a prophet, etc.).

It seems the Kitab al-Bulhan was commissioned by, or the idea of, Shaykh al-Diya Husayn al-Irbili’ (originally of Irbil near Mosul in northern Iraq), who sold it to Haydar ibn al-Hajji ʿAbd al-Karim ibn Muhammad in Dec 1409 - Jan 1410 CE. The original codex comprised a series of treatises, which came apart, and when sections were reassembled and some lost, it became jumbled and incoherent. The work includes extracts copied from the Kitab al-mawalid (‘Book of Nativities’) of the astronomer and neo-Platonist Abu Maʿshar al-Balkhi (787-886 CE) of Balkh (modern-day Mazar-i Sharif) in northern Afghanistan.

circa 1400 CE

Folio 2b: Signs of the zodiac: Aries, or al-Hamal
The illustration is a full-page miniature painting in the style of 14th/15th-century Baghdad, characterized by vibrant colors and detailed line work typical of Islamic art from the period. The composition combines text and image in a balanced, hierarchical arrangement, using symbolic figures rather than narrative scenes to convey abstract ideas. A dominant central image is paired with smaller subsidiary figures, suggesting an ordered relationship between different levels of influence or agency. The style is schematic and emblematic, favoring clarity of meaning over naturalistic detail, and reflects the intellectual milieu in which cosmology, astrology, and speculative knowledge were understood as interconnected fields.

circa 1400 CE

Folio 5b: Signs of the zodiac: Gemini, or al-Gawāz
The illustration on folio 5b depicts the Gemini sign in the manuscript's artistic style. This illustration is one of twelve full-page illustrations, each representing a zodiac sign. The manuscript is an important example of Islamic science and art.

The central composition is dominated by a large circular medallion set against a blue background, evoking a cosmological or celestial space. Within this circle are two human figures rendered in a schematic but expressive style. On the right stands a male figure dressed in a long green robe and a white turban, his right hand raised in a gesture that may signify invocation, instruction, or command. His posture and attire suggest authority or learned status, possibly representing a sage, astrologer, or spiritual intermediary. On the left is a seated, cross-legged figure dressed in a reddish-orange garment, holding objects in both hands that resemble small vessels or symbolic instruments. The duplication or mirroring of facial features on this seated figure may indicate a supernatural, dual, or liminal identity rather than a naturalistic portrait.

Scattered throughout the blue field of the medallion are small circular forms in red, yellow, and pale tones, which are commonly interpreted in manuscript traditions as stars, planets, or abstract markers of cosmic forces. Their inclusion reinforces the impression that the scene is situated within an astral, metaphysical, or magical framework rather than a terrestrial one. The use of a circular frame itself is significant, as circles frequently symbolize the cosmos, perfection, or enclosed systems of knowledge in Islamic visual culture.

Below the main medallion are three smaller squarish illustrations arranged horizontally. Each depicts a seated figure or stylized form surrounded by vegetal motifs. These smaller vignettes may represent subordinate spirits, talismanic figures, zodiacal signs, or elemental correspondences. The repeated use of symmetrical plants and simplified bodies aligns with the visual language of occult and esoteric manuscripts, in which symbolic clarity often takes precedence over anatomical realism.

circa 1400 CE

Folio 7b: Signs of the zodiac: Cancer, or al-Saratān
At the top of the page is a rectangular cartouche containing a bold Arabic heading written in black ink. The script is informal but confident, characteristic of manuscript headings rather than Qurʾanic calligraphy. The text identifies the zodiacal sign depicted below, corresponding to Cancer (al-Saraṭān), and situates it within the broader astrological system governed by planetary influences. Marginal annotations, written in a smaller cursive hand, surround the main frame, suggesting later commentary, glosses, or practical notes added by readers or owners of the manuscript.

The central illustration is enclosed within a circular medallion set against a deep blue ground, symbolizing the celestial sphere. At the center is a stylized crab, the conventional emblem of Cancer, rendered in a highly schematic and symbolic manner rather than naturalistic form. The crab’s body is frontal and symmetrical, with articulated legs and claws clearly delineated. Unusually, the creature is shown with large, wing-like appendages extending upward and outward, a feature that reflects the manuscript’s syncretic visual language rather than zoological observation. Above the crab is a human-faced moon, its round visage framed by the arc of the medallion. The moon’s anthropomorphic representation emphasizes the traditional astrological association of Cancer as a lunar domicile. Small circular motifs—likely representing stars or planets—are distributed across the blue field, reinforcing the cosmic setting.

The color palette is limited but deliberate: blues dominate the celestial background, while reds, creams, and pale browns articulate the crab and its surrounding elements. The pigments appear matte and mineral-based, consistent with medieval manuscript illumination practices. Line work is clear and outlines are emphasized, suggesting that symbolic legibility was prioritized over pictorial realism. The composition is hieratic and balanced, aligning with the didactic purpose of the image.

Below the circular medallion are three small somewhat rectangular panels containing seated human figures, each framed individually. These figures are shown in profile or three-quarter view, wearing robes of different colors—green, red, and muted tones—and seated in composed, meditative postures. They likely represent human “types,” decans, or temperamental archetypes associated with the sign of Cancer, or possibly figures under its planetary influence. Floral or vegetal motifs between the figures further allude to the sign’s associations with growth, moisture, and fertility.

circa 1400 CE

Folio 9b: Signs of the zodiac: Leo, or al-Asad

circa 1400 CE

Folio 11b: Signs of the zodiac: Virgo, or al-Sunbula (the ear of corn)

circa 1400 CE

Folio 13b: Sign of the zodiac: Libra, or al-Mīzān

circa 1400 CE

Folio 15b: Signs of the zodiac: Scorpio, or al-‘Aqrab

circa 1400 CE

Folio 15b: Signs of the zodiac: Sagittarius, or al-Qaws

circa 1400 CE

Folio 19b: Signs of the zodiac: Capricorn, or al-Gadī

circa 1400 CE

Folio 21b: Signs of the zodiac: Aquarius, or al-Dālī

circa 1400 CE

Folio 22b: Signs of the zodiac: Pisces, or al-Hūt

circa 1400 CE

Folio 25b: Astrology: The Children of the Planets (1)

circa 1400 CE

Folio 26a: Astrology: The Children of the Planets (2)

circa 1400 CE

Folio 29a
A representation of the ancient temple (barabi).

circa 1400 CE

Maymūn, the demon king of Saturday. Demon portrait.

circa 1400 CE

Folio 32v: Shamhurash, the demon king of Thursday
The jinn of Thursday is a king named ‘Shamhurash’, the title specifying that he is nasrani (‘Christian’), who is also known from some sources as Abu al-Walid or ‘Father of the Child’ (opposite). This is probably the reason why he is represented with a naked child in his hands, held upside down, although it is unclear whether Shamhurash’s influence over him is positive or negative.

circa 1400 CE

Folio 33b:

circa 1400 CE

The lighthouse of Alexandria.

circa 1400 CE

Folio 38a: The great wall of Gog and Magog

circa 1400 CE

Folio 28b:
Demons: a demon. Demon portrait. "The evil Jinn Iblis, (Arabic: إبليس‎‎, from the Arabic بَلَسَ balasa, "he despaired") known as 'father of bitterness'. He was raised by Angels but was cast out when he refused to honor Adam. He only eats unhallowed food, is associated with the baths, with the market, and the junctures of roads. He lives in a huge palace floating in the sea with 1,000 guards.”

circa 1400 CE

Folio 34r: The sage, Abu Maʾshar al-Balhi, Conducting an Astronomical Experiment
One of the most significant full-page illustrations represents the author, identified by the title in the cartouche at the top of the page (see p. 23): Abu Maʿ shar – the astronomer, astrologer and philosopher – sits bare-chested atop a column holding an astrolabe in his right hand; he is flanked by an attendant looking at him in a gesture of surprise (his finger raised to the mouth), captivated by the experiment the master is attempting; books and the astronomer’s clothes complete the painting on the right side.

circa 1400 CE

Folio 37b:

circa 1400 CE

Folio 39a: The Imposing Castle

circa 1400 CE

Folio 39b: A Sultan and his Attendant on Horseback

circa 1400 CE

Folio 42v: Mountain of Fire and the Salamander Birds
The ‘Mountain of Fire and the Salamander Birds’ is a story related to the Phoenix who dies in the fire immolating itself and is later reborn from its ashes. According to some Arab geographers, this tale does not relate to a single bird but to a large number of them called ‘salamander birds’ (the salamander being also often quoted as a reptile that is able to survive in the fire in medieval texts). This is the way it was illustrated by the painter of this section of the Kitab al-bulhan: a burning rock formation surrounded by flames amongst which several small birds are perched.