First settlement established near Gihon Spring (earliest archeological evidence). The first settlment in Jerusalem was in the Ophel area of ancient Jerusalem above the Gihon Spring.

The Gihon Spring, one of the world's major intermittent springs, was a crucial water source that enabled ancient Jerusalem's settlement. Besides providing drinking water, it initially supported irrigation in the Kidron Valley, sustaining local agriculture. Emerging from a cave, it is located 535 meters north of the Pool of Siloam, which was excavated to store water due to the spring’s intermittent flow. Historically, it flowed multiple times daily depending on the season, likely due to a siphon-like geological mechanism. With the highest water output in the area—600,000 cubic meters annually—it remains a significant hydrological feature. Today, it is controlled by the Ir David Foundation and is occasionally used as a mikvah by Jewish men.

circa 4500 BCE- Present

Canaanite Period (circa 1800–1200 BCE)
During the Middle Bronze Age, the early inhabitants of Jerusalem, likely the Jebusites, recognized the importance of Gihon Spring and developed fortifications around it. To secure access to the water while protecting against external threats, they constructed an elaborate water system. One of the earliest known structures associated with the spring is the Middle Bronze Age Siloam Channel. This was a fairly straight channel, cut 20 feet into the ground and covered with slabs to conceal it under foliage. Functioning as an aqueduct, it transported water from the spring to the oldest Upper Pool of Siloam, providing a reliable water source for the settlement. A slightly later development was the Bronze Age Warren's Shaft System, which consisted of tunnels leading from the Well Gate at the top of the Ophel, down to the spring. Unlike later systems, this structure was not an aqueduct but rather a means for residents to descend safely and collect water. The natural vertical shaft known as Warren’s Shaft played no actual role in this system, despite its later association with the waterworks of the city.

Israelite and First Temple Period (circa 1000–586 BCE)
After King David captured Jerusalem from the Jebusites (circa 1010 BCE), he integrated the Gihon Spring into the city’s layout, making it a central resource for the newly established capital of the Israelite kingdom. The spring was not only crucial for daily water needs but also had ceremonial significance. Solomon (reigned circa 970–931 BCE) was anointed as king at Gihon (1 Kings 1:32-45), indicating its role in royal rituals.

By the late 8th century BCE, during the reign of King Hezekiah (circa 727–698 BCE), the Assyrian Empire under Sennacherib threatened Jerusalem. To protect the city's water supply from being cut off by invaders, Hezekiah ordered the construction of the Iron Age Siloam Tunnel (circa 701 BCE). This tunnel, carved through solid rock, redirected water from the Gihon Spring to the Pool of Siloam, located inside Jerusalem's defensive walls. The winding nature of the tunnel suggests that two teams of workers dug from opposite ends and met in the middle, as described in the Siloam Inscription, which was found carved into its wall.

The Siloam Tunnel effectively replaced the older Middle Bronze Age Siloam Channel, marking a significant advancement in Jerusalem's water infrastructure. In addition, the "spring tower", a fortified structure, was built around the spring to further secure access. These engineering projects highlight the strategic importance of the Gihon Spring during this period.

Babylonian and Second Temple Period (586 BCE–70 CE)
The Babylonian destruction of Jerusalem in 586 BCE led to the deterioration of the city's infrastructure, including the water systems connected to the Gihon Spring. During the Persian and early Hellenistic periods (6th–3rd centuries BCE), Jerusalem was gradually rebuilt, and the spring remained a key water source. However, major renovations to the water systems occurred during the Hasmonean period (2nd–1st century BCE), when additional channels and reservoirs were developed to support the city's expanding population.

During the Roman period, the Second Temple stood in Jerusalem, and the city's water supply system was expanded to meet the needs of pilgrims and residents. The spring-fed Pool of Siloam became an important location for ritual purification (mikveh) before entering the Temple. Though new aqueducts were built to bring water from distant sources, the Gihon Spring remained a vital local resource.

Byzantine and Islamic Periods (4th–16th Century CE)
By the Byzantine period, the importance of the Gihon Spring declined as Jerusalem's water infrastructure improved, with cisterns and aqueducts supplying much of the city’s needs. However, Christian tradition associated the site with biblical events, and some structures around the spring were preserved.

During the early Islamic period (7th–11th centuries CE), Jerusalem continued to rely on the Gihon Spring, but it was no longer the city's primary source of water. The Crusaders (12th century CE) attempted to improve the water supply by constructing additional reservoirs. Due to these efforts, the Gihon Spring gradually lost its prominence as more advanced water systems were developed.

Ottoman to Modern Period (16th Century CE–Present)
Under Ottoman rule (16th–19th centuries CE), the spring was primarily used by local residents of the Silwan area and remained part of Jerusalem's historical landscape. By the late 19th and early 20th centuries, modern water infrastructure reduced the city's dependence on the spring. Excavations in the 19th and 20th centuries uncovered Hezekiah's Tunnel and the ancient fortifications around the spring, confirming its significance in Jerusalem’s early history.

Today, the Gihon Spring is an important archaeological and tourist site, offering insights into ancient Jerusalem’s engineering and urban development. Its role in biblical history, combined with its sophisticated water systems, highlights its significance as one of the most important natural features of ancient Jerusalem.

circa 4500 BCE- Present

Gihon Spring is a karstic spring located on the eastern slope of the City of David in Jerusalem. It emerges from a system of underground limestone formations, where groundwater accumulates and flows through natural fissures and conduits. The spring is characterized by its intermittent or pulsating flow, a phenomenon caused by the siphon-like action of subterranean chambers. As water fills these chambers, pressure builds up until it forces water out in periodic bursts, a behavior observed in many karst springs worldwide.

The water discharge of Gihon Spring has historically varied depending on seasonal rainfall and climatic conditions. During wet seasons, the increased infiltration of rainwater into the limestone formations leads to a higher and more sustained output, while in drier periods, the flow diminishes significantly. This fluctuation in water availability played a crucial role in the development of water management systems in ancient Jerusalem, necessitating the construction of channels, tunnels, and reservoirs to store and distribute water effectively.

Over time, human intervention has modified the hydrology of the spring. The construction of Hezekiah’s Tunnel in the Iron Age redirected much of the water flow toward the Pool of Siloam, reducing the natural outflow at the spring’s original emergence point. In modern times, urban development and groundwater extraction have further impacted the spring’s discharge. Despite these changes, Gihon Spring remains an essential hydrological feature in the region, both as a natural water source and as an archaeological site that offers insight into ancient engineering and water management techniques.

circa 4500 BCE- Present

In the mid-19th century, James Turner Barclay, an American missionary and explorer, attempted to investigate a subterranean passageway leading from the "Virgin's Fount" (Gihon Spring). He observed that the channel extended northward and then curved westward toward a location near the Mughrabi Gate. However, his exploration was halted due to a blockage caused by accumulated stones and fallen debris. Based on his observations, Barclay hypothesized that the purpose of this channel was to discharge surplus water into the Ophel channel, ultimately directing it to be stored in the Pool of Siloam. His exploration contributed to early modern attempts to understand the complex water systems of ancient Jerusalem.

More than a century later, in 1997 CE, during construction work for a visitor center at the City of David archaeological site, a significant discovery was made regarding the fortifications surrounding the Gihon Spring. Archaeologists unexpectedly uncovered two massive defensive towers, which had been built to protect access to the vital water source. The first tower was positioned over the base of what later came to be known as the "Warren's Shaft", while the second directly fortified the spring itself. Initially dated to the Middle Bronze Age, these fortifications were found to be among the largest and most well-preserved Bronze Age defensive structures in the region, demonstrating the strategic importance of the spring in ancient times. The discovery reinforced the understanding that access to water was heavily fortified, likely due to both military and practical concerns, as control over the Gihon Spring was essential for the survival and security of the city.

Further excavations and analyses of these towers suggested that the fortifications had been part of a broader system of urban defense and water management. The massive stonework, with blocks measuring several feet in length, indicated advanced engineering techniques for the period. The structures also provided evidence that the city’s inhabitants had invested considerable resources to ensure their continued access to water, even during times of siege or external threats. The discovery of these fortifications significantly revised previous assumptions about the extent and sophistication of Jerusalem’s urban planning in the Middle Bronze Age.

circa 700 BCE

Siloam Inscription
The Siloam Inscription, also known as the Silwan or Shiloah Inscription, is a significant Hebrew text discovered in the Siloam Tunnel, which carries water from the Gihon Spring to the Pool of Siloam in Jerusalem. Dated to the 8th century BCE based on its script, it is one of the earliest known Hebrew inscriptions and provides a rare record of a public construction project from the Kingdom of Judah. Unlike Egyptian and Mesopotamian cultures, where such commemorative inscriptions were common, this is the only known example from ancient Israel and Judah. Written in the Paleo-Hebrew alphabet, the inscription describes the moment when two teams of workers, digging from opposite ends, successfully connected the tunnel. It remains a crucial artifact for understanding Hebrew epigraphy, early engineering, and the water systems of Jerusalem.

In 1890, the inscription was removed from the tunnel by a local resident and accidentally broken into several pieces. The Ottoman authorities, who governed Jerusalem at the time, retrieved the fragments and transported them to Istanbul, where the inscription became part of the collection of the Istanbul Archaeology Museum. Prior to its removal, German scholar Hermann Guthe had made casts of the inscription, preserving its original appearance. Today, while the original remains in Istanbul, a replica is displayed at the Israel Museum in Jerusalem. Despite various diplomatic discussions and public interest, the inscription remains in Turkey, continuing to be an important artifact for the study of ancient Jerusalem and the history of Hebrew writing.